Aksum university

Shire campus

School of mines

Department of Mining Engineering

COURSE Title SURFACE MINING

COURSE CODE MinE 501

By Girmay k 1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE MINING

By Girmay k 2 2
 What is surface mining?
• Surface mining is used when deposits of commercially useful minerals or rock are found near
the surface; that is, where the overburden is relatively thin or the material of interest is
structurally unsuitable for tunneling (as would usually be the case for sand, and grave.

• is a type of mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit (the overburden) are
removed to extract the economic minerals .

• In most forms of surface mining, heavy equipment, such as earthmovers, first remove the
overburden. Next, huge machines, such as dragline excavators or Bucket wheel excavators ,
extract the mineral.

• Surface mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral deposit is exhausted, or the cost of
removing larger volumes of overburden makes further mining no longer economically viable.
By Girmay k 3
By Girmay k 4
 Sg

By Girmay k 5
Cont.….
• drilling
• blasting
if ore , rock and OB are soft no need of drilling
and blasting but you should use surface miner
• loading

Hauling

transporting

processing

By Girmay k 6
By Girmay k 7
By Girmay k 8
 Factor affecting the selection of mining method
 The simple aim in selecting and implementing a particular mine plan is always to mine
mineral depose it so that profit is maximized given the unique characteristics of the
deposit and its location, current market prices for the mined mineral, and the limits
imposed by safety, economy, environment”
When choosing between surface and underground methods, some of the factors that must be
considered include
 Depth ,Size, and shape of the mineral deposit(geo meter of deposit);how?
 Geologic structure and geo mechanical conditions; how?
 Productivities and machinery capacities; how?
 Availability of experienced work force; how?
 Capital requirements and operating costs; how?
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 Safety and injuries; how?
 Environmental impacts, during and after mining; how?
 Reclamation and restoration requirements and costs; how?
 Societal and cultural expectations. how?

By Girmay k 10
 Cont…
Some deposits may reasonably be mined entirely by surface methods.

 In general, such deposits are close to the surface and have a relatively uniform geology.

Similarly, some deposits can only be mined economically by underground methods. These deposits are
usually deeper, with geological and mineralogical characteristics that require more selective ore
extraction.

Finally, other deposits are best mined initially as open pits, with production shifting to an underground
method as deeper portions of the ore body are extracted why?.

• In suitable deposits, surface mining is more productive, more economic, and safer for workers.
However, changes in environmental regulations and societal expectations may lead to fewer large open-
pit mines, particularly if operators are required to backfill open pits and re contour waste dumps. These
conditions may result in the development of small, high-grade deposits by very shallow open pits or in
the development of high-grade underground mines in place of large open-pit mines.
By Girmay k 11
 Cont
All other conditions remaining equal, surface mining…
is normally
regarded as preferable when compared to underground mining,
because of;
• Lower development costs,
• Quicker start-up time, and
• Safety - lower accident rates generally associated with surface mining.
• Higher production
• Better productivity
However; surface mines create a much larger footprint than
underground mines why?.

By Girmay k 1 12
2
 The following briefly discusses some of the characteristics of surface mining.

• Production: much more material is produced by surface than by underground

mining why?.
• Mine size: In terms of daily production tonnage, surface mines are almost always
larger than underground mines producing the same commodity. This is partially
true because open-pit mines; must mine much more waste rock, much more
dilution of the in-situ mineral, whereas many of the underground methods can
mine the same mineral much more selectively, with less dilution and therefore
fewer metric tons.
• Safety: The mining industry throughout the world continues to reduce the
incidence of accidents and fatalities. The underground mining environment is
recognized as being more hazardous than the surface why?.

By Girmay k 13
 Cont
Development of surface mines: Surface mining enable to start production faster than UG though
…
there is difference among surface mining methods why?.

– Development for surface mining of coal and other bedded minerals involves the removing
of cover layers of soil and rock to expose the coal.
– When an ore body is steeply dipping and at or near the surface , open-pit mining can start with
a small amount of stripping.

– Pre-stripping waste volume and the time it takes varies depending on the deposit.

• In an underground mine, a significant amount of infrastructure must be installed before mining

begins. This will include shafts, hoists, ventilation fans, underground shops, travel ways for
workers and machinery, ore storage bins, underground crushers, and so forth.
By Girmay k 9 14
• Environmental and closure requirements: Surface mines create a much larger footprint than
underground mines. surface coal mines are required to backfill mine excavations, and re-
contour and re-vegetate waste piles.

Advantages of surface mining

Like Underground Mining no minerals are blocked as shaft pillars , supports , roadways etc.
Roof control and ventilation is not required .
 Low cost as compared to Underground Mining .
 Low labor requirement than Underground Mining.
 Hazards and dangers are lesser than Underground Mining .
Quality control is easy .
High degree of mechanization is possible .
High explosives can be used . By Girmay k 15
 Disadvantages of surface mining
This method can be un economic for extracting the minerals at more a depth of high stripping
ratio.
 There maybe huge environmental problems .
 Weather affects .
Limited by striping ratio.
 Require a remote area for mine waste deposal .
 Degradation of surface land is high.

By Girmay k 16
 Classification of Surface Mining
Methods
Two classes of surface mining methods include
a. Mechanical extraction method
b. Aqueous extraction method
how?

By Girmay k 17
method Sub class method

Mechanical excavation  Open-pit mining.

 Terrace mining.
 Strip (flat terrain) mining.
 Contour strip (hilly terrain)
mining.
 Auger Mining
 Glory Holing
 Quarrying
Aqueous Placer Panning
Sluicing
Dredging
Hydraulic Mining

Solution  Heap Leaching

By Girmay k  In-situ leaching (ISL) 18
Review questions
1) How stripping ratio affect selection of mining method?
2) A company plans to extract mineral deposit which is found at 30m depth. if a mineral , OB
and rock is strong, soft, crushes with in the pit and have dragline machine, as a mining engineer
how can extract mineral economically with each production cycle?
OB=30m

W ORE W

3) Ezan gold mine plans to extract an economic mineral deposit which is found 100m below the
surface and the company needs to select by which mining method can extract the mineral
deposit economically so as mining engineer how can identify the best mining method? and
how can affect factors you are used?

By Girmay k 19
 CHAPTER TWO
INTRODUCTION TO OPEN PIT
Open-pit mining can be defined as the process of excavating any near-surface ore deposit by
means of an excavation or cut made at the surface, using one or more horizontal benches to
extract the ore while dumping overburden and tailings at a dedicated disposal site outside the
final pit boundary.
Used in extraction of thick or steeply dipping deposits.
Open-pit mining is used for the extraction of both metallic and nonmetallic ores; application of
this mining method in coal is less common.
Open-pit mining is considered different from quarrying in that it selectively extracts ore rather
than an aggregate or a dimensional stone product.
The main difference between strip mining—commonly used in the mining of shallow ,thin and
bedded deposits.
In strip mining, overburden is dumped directly onto mined-out panels rather than outside the
final pit boundary, as is typical of open-pit mining.
Both stripping and mining are from one or a Bysequence
Girmay k
of benches 20
Future of open pit mine
Operation designed to extract mineral deposits that lie close to the surface
It is usually employed to exploit a near-surface deposit or one that has a low stripping ratio.
It is used when the ore body is near the surface and little overburden (waste rock) needs to be
removed.
It often necessitates a large capital investment but generally results in high productivity, low
operating cost, and good safety conditions.
2nd cheapest method, but has the largest environmental impact. Why?
Funnel shaped hole in ground, with ramp spiraling down along sides, allows moderately deep
ore to be reached.
Waste is first removed, then the ore is broken and loaded.
Non-selective ;-all high and low grade zones mined
By Girmay k 21
By Girmay k 22
 Drilling and blasting
Overburden removal 23
By Girmay k 24
By Girmay k 25
 CONT..
• The following are terms that commonly occur in open pit mine planning and are used
throughout this chapter.
• A bench may be defined as a ledge that forms a single level of operation above which mineral
or waste materials are mined back to a bench face. The mineral or waste is removed in
successive layers, each of which is a bench. Several benches may be in operation
simultaneously in different parts of, and at different elevations in the open pit mine
• The bench height is the vertical distance between the highest point of the bench, or the
bench crest, and the toe of the bench.

• The bench slope is the angle, measured in degrees, between the horizontal and an imaginary
line joining the 5/3b/2e01n7 9c:45hPMtoe and crest.

•. By Girmay k 26
 CONT…
• In order to enhance the stability of a slope within the pit— and for safety reasons—berms may
be left. A berm is a horizontal shelf or ledge within the ultimate pit wall slope. The berm
interval, berm slope angle, and berm width are governed by the geotechnical configuration of
the slope.

• The angle of repose or angle of rest is the maximum slope at which a heap of loose material
will stand without sliding.

• Pit limits are the vertical and lateral extent to which the open pit mining may be economically
conducted

By Girmay k 27
 The overall pit slope angle is the angle at which the wall of an open pit stands,
as measured between the horizontal and an imaginary line joining the top bench
crest with the bottom bench toe.
 Geometrically overall pit slope angle can be computed as follows.

But if there is no ramp the overall pit slope angle

Will be
𝑁𝐵 ∗𝐵𝐻
 Overall pit slope angle=tan−1 ( 𝑁𝐵∗𝐵𝐻 )
𝑁𝐵−1 𝐵𝑊+
tan 𝐵𝐴

By Girmay k 28
 Example one find the overall pit slope angle if there is ramp 100m in bench 2?

30 m
20m
Y
15 m 100M

15m
20m

30 m
Overall pit slope angle
Bench slope =75 degree
X

By Girmay k 29
Solution

−1 3∗30
 Overall pit slope angle =tan ( 3∗30 )
2∗20+ +100
tan 75

By Girmay k 30
 Cont….
• For the duration of open pit mining, a haul road must be maintained into the pit.
 A spiral system is an arrangement whereby the haul road is arranged spirally along the
perimeter walls of the pit so that the gradient of the road is more or less uniform from the top
to the bottom of the pit.
 A zigzag or switchback system is an arrangement in which the road overcomes the steep
grade of a pit wall by zigzagging, generally on the footwall side of the pit.
 The choice of spiral or zigzag is dependent upon the shape and size of the ore body, truck
economics, and pit slope stability.
 Haul road width is governed by the required capacity of the road and type of haulage
unit.

The sub outcrop depth represents the depth of waste that has to be removed before any ore is
exposed. This waste is often referred to as preproduction stripping.
By Girmay k 31
 Haul road

spiral system zigzag or switchback system

By Girmay k 32
 Cont....
The ratio of the total volume of waste to the ore volume is defined as the overall stripping
ratio:
Sr=R =volume of waste removed to depth d / volume of ore recovered to depth d
A B C

d
or
E e
α
D
The cutoff stripping ratio is the one for which the costs of mining the ore and waste are
matched by the revenue from that block of ore.
Factors used to determine costs should include the added costs of mining as the pit deepens and
the interest charges on the pre stripping of waste.

By Girmay k 33
 CONT...
Declining Stripping Ratio Method. This method requires that each bench of ore be mined in
sequence , and all the waste on the particular bench is removed to the pit limit.
• The advantages of this method are the operating working space available, the accessibility of
the ore on the sub sequent bench, all equipment working on the same level, no contamination
from waste blasting above the ore, and equipment requirements are a minimum towards the end
of the mine’s life.
• The primary disadvantage of this method is that the overall operating costs are a maximum
during the initial years of operation when maximum repayment of capital.

1 1 1

2 2 2 Declining Stripping Ratio

ore
3
3 3
4
4
4
5 5
5

• By Girmay k 34
 Cont...
Increasing Stripping Ratio Method. In this method, stripping is performed as needed to
uncover the ore . The working slopes of the waste faces are essentially maintained parallel to
the overall pit slope angle.
 This method allows for maximum profit in the initial years of operation and greatly reduces
the investment risk in waste removal for ore to be mined at a future date. This method is very
popular where the mining economics or cutoff stripping ratio is likely to change on very short
notice.
The disadvantage of this method is the impracticality of operating a large number of loaded,
narrow benches simultaneously to meet production needs.
• 2 1
3 2 Increasing Stripping Ratio
• 4 3
• 5 4
5
By Girmay k 35
 Cont....
• Constant Stripping Ratio Method. This method attempts to remove the waste at a rate
approximated by the overall stripping ratio. The working slope of the waste faces starts very
shallow, but increases as mining depth increases until the working slope equals the overall pit
slope.
• This method from an advantage and disadvantage point of view, is a compromise that removes
the extreme conditions of the former two stripping methods outlined. Equipment fleet size and
labor requirements throughout the project life are relatively constant.

Constant Stripping Ratio

By Girmay k 36
R Stripping ratio
r
d  consider the ore body shown in Figure which has
the shape of a right circular cylinder. It outcrops at

h the surface and extends to a depth h. The volume of

the contained ore is expressed by V0 = 𝝅r2 h
As we know that;
Hc 𝟏
 Vol: of cone = 𝝅r2 h
𝟑

 And Vol: of cylinder = 𝝅r2 h

So Volume of circular ore body; Vo

 Vo= 𝝅r2 h
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 𝟏
 Volume of (small) cut tip of cone; VT= 𝝅r2 ∆ h
𝟑

And Δh = γtanθ

 as height of big cone, is Hc;

And Hc = Δh + h Hc=h+γtanθ

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Therefor Vol: of bigger cone, Vc = 𝝅R2Hc = 𝝅R2 (h+∆𝒉) or 𝝅R2 (h+γtanθ )
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
So Mined Vol(vm)=Vc-Vt
𝟏 𝟏
 Vm= 𝝅R2Hc - 𝝅r2 ∆h
𝟑 𝟑

𝟏 𝟏
 Volume of waste vw= v -v
m o where vo=𝝅r2 h and vm= 𝝅R2Hc
𝟑
-
𝟑
𝝅r2 ∆h

𝟏 𝟏
 Vw= 𝝅R2Hc - 𝝅r2 ∆ h - 𝝅r2 h
𝟑 𝟑
By Girmay k 38
 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
So stripping ration=𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏

Example:
A cylindrical ore body with radius of 50m and Depth of 250m is to be excavated by developing a
cone, radius and depth of large cone 100m and 300m respectively. Slopes of the sides of the cone
with the horizontal are 55 degree. Unit weight of the ore is 3.1 tons/m3 and that of the waste rock
is 2.6 tons/m3.determine the stripping ratio (SR)

By Girmay k 39
Cont.…
OPEN-PIT GEOMETRY
I) Benches
• Benches are possibly the most distinguishing feature of an open pit. They are
crucial in an operation as they accommodate the active blasting and
excavation areas.
• Benches can be divided into working benches and inactive benches .
• Working benches are in the process of being excavated, whereas inactive
benches are the remnants of working benches left in place to maintain pit-
slope stability.
• Between main benches, catch benches are left in place to prevent cascading
material from compromising safety in active areas of an operation 40
By Girmay k
 The purpose of leaving safety benches is to:
a) collect the material which slides down from the benches above; and to
b) stop the downward progress of the boulders.
 During primary extraction, a safety bench is generally left on every level. The width of
safety bench SB varies with bench height “H”. Generally the width of the safety bench is 2/3
of the bench height.
 At the end of mine life, the safety benches are sometimes reduced to a width of about of the
1/3 of bench height.
 In addition to leaving the safety benches berms (piles) of broken materials are often
constructed along the crest. These serve the function of forming a ditch between the berm and
the toe of the slope to catch falling rocks.
By Girmay k 41
 A safety berm is also left along the outer edge of the bench to prevent trucks and other
machines from backing over. It serves much the same function as a guard rail on bridges and
elevated highways. Normally the pile has a height greater than or equal to the tire radius. The
berm slope is taken to be about 35 degree, i.e. also
By Girmay k called the angle of repose. 42
Cont..
Bench heights typically lie around 15 m. The bench width varies according to equipment size
and the rock characteristics.

working benches should at least be wide enough to accommodate the turning radius of the
largest haul truck plus the width of the safety berm. However, ideally, the bench should at least
be wide enough to allow the largest haul trucks to clear the excavator under full acceleration.
Depending on the chosen pushback geometry and size of the equipment, the width of a working
bench can be anywhere from 30 m to several hundred meters.

working benches have to accommodate large excavators and dump trucks as well as the muck
pile formed after a blast. Therefore, maintaining the quality of a suitable working surface
is vital to ensure acceptable safety and productivity levels at an active excavation.
By Girmay k 43
• The purpose of benches Cont.…
 Control depth of blast-hole, Control slope of the pit walls,
 provide enough length of face to allow sustainable production.

 Individual bench parameters are set to accommodate material handling equipment:.

 Bench must enough width to contain fly rock.

• The Bench height will depend on:

• i)The physical characteristics of the deposit;

• ii)The degree of selectivity required in separating the ore and waste with the loading
equipment; the rate of production;(grade of mineral deposits)

• iii)The size and type of equipment to meet the production requirements; and

• iv)The climatic conditions. By Girmay k 44

For health and safety reasons, safety berms (also known as safety benches or windrows) are
constructed along crests of benches in a similar manner to those found next to haul roads.
Generally, a berm with a height equal to the axle height (e.g., at least half of the wheel height)
of the largest truck entering an area is not only a safe design but commonly required by mine
safety regulations.
Haul Roads
Haul roads constitute a key element of an open-pit mine, providing the main haulage route for
ore and overburden from active excavation areas to the pit border and beyond.
Possible effects of poor haul road are
• Decreased truck and tire life,
• Loss of productivity,
• Poor ride quality, and
• •Excessive dust generation. By Girmay k 45
• Overburden Disposal
Overburden forms, by far, the largest volume of material produced by most open-pit mines. As
overburden generally does not generate any revenue, handling is kept to a minimum.
Furthermore, it can contain sulfides or other substances that are potentially damaging to the
environment. Consequently, selection of the most suitable site for the overburden embankment
involves a trade-off between handling costs related to overburden disposal and the
environmental impact of the overburden at a particular site.
Minimizing costs involves selecting an overburden embankment site in close proximity to the
mine where the environmental impact is as small as possible. Preferably, this site is as close as
possible to the projected final pit limit, at the same or a lower elevation as the excavation to
minimize upslope haulage costs while maintaining the lowest possible cycle time. With these
considerations in mind, optimization of overburden management at a mine site can have a
considerable positive influence on the environmental impact and economic viability of a mine.
By Girmay k 46
Overburden is deposited either top-down or bottom-up.

End-dumping (or top-down dumping) of overburden involves dumping the material over an
advancing face. During operation of the dump, only limited reworking of material by dozers is
required. Re contouring starts after the end of the dump life.

 In paddock dumping (also known as bottom-up dumping), the layers of overburden are stacked
by dumping on top of the dump, followed with spreading by bulldozers to form relatively thin
layers.

 Paddock dumping is favored from a geotechnical point of view because it allows for more
control over the angle of repose of the dumped material and provides a better homogeneity of
the material and ultimately better stability . Furthermore, paddock dumping provides the
possibility of concurrent rehabilitation of the overburden embankment and more control over
By Girmay k 47
the encapsulation of potentially acid-generating overburden.
 Open pit stability
• The following are the key items affecting the Open Pit Stability:

• i)Pit slope

• ii)Pit wall stability

• iii)Rock strength

• iv)Pit Depth

• v)Pit diameter

• vi)Water Damage

• vii)Strip Ratio (SR)

By Girmay k 48
i) Pit Slopes
 The slope of the pit wall is one of the major elements affecting the size and shape of the pit
HOW?
 The pit slope helps determine the amount of waste that must be moved to mine ore HOW?
 Rock strength, faults, joints, presence of water, and other geologic information are key factors
in the evaluation of the proper slope angle.
 The physical characteristics of the deposit cause the pit slope to change with rock type, sector
location, elevation, or orientation within the pit.
 Pit slopes are cut into benches to aid stability contain any slope failures.

By Girmay k 49
 Cont…
 Rock most be stronger than sand so the angle of repose can be larger.
 45°is usually the maximum slope.
Pit slopes are benched.
The slope cannot exceed 45°and remain stable, so at some point it becomes
impossible and/or uneconomic to continue mining.
Slope Stability

Function of the natural angle of repose, density, surface and subsurface water flow
Early stabilization of surfaces is critical i.e. seeding, mulching, erosion blanket
Eliminate points of concentrated flow using berms or using slope drains as outlets
Difficult slopes may require riprap, gabions, or other measures for permanent
stabilization
By Girmay k 50
 ii) Pit Wall stability
 Crack measuring
Failure warning
 Movement of the walls
• Most ore bodies are related to faulting in the earth's crust.

• Fault generates stresses in the host rock, rupturing it and causing faults in the rock .

• Faults are typically long linear features so that if a circular pit is used to mine an ore
body , it is likely to intersect a fault at two points, which leads to instability in at
least two parts of the pit slope.

• Instable: causes
• Underlying fracture or fault
• Magma
• landslide
By Girmay k 51
 Cont….
• landslide that occurred recently following rain storms. A berm was created at the
base of the slide to protect the main haul road.
• III)Greater rock strength can support greater bench heights
resulting in:
i. a steeper pit,
ii. a lower stripping ratio and
iii. less waste rock.
VI)A greater final pit depth requires a larger diameter pit (assuming rock strength
and pit slope remains unchanged) .
• resulting in
• i. a higher stripping ratio and
• ii. more waste rock.

By Girmay k 52
V)The Depth Effect Cont…
Note that as a pit goes deeper the stripping ratio increases until it reaches an
economic limit.
 as slope decreases S.R. increase
 as depth increases S.R. increases
VI) Stripping ratio is defined as the ratio of the Overburden/Cover Rock / Waste Rock to the
ore body.
 Stripping ratio is defined as the ratio of the Overburden/Cover Rock / Waste Rock to the ore
body.
 Stripping ratio or strip ratio refers to the ratio of the volume of overburden (or waste material)
required to be handled in order to extract some volume of ore.

By Girmay k 53
• vii) Water Damage Cont…
Pit most keep dry
Dewatering also helps to keep the slopes dry and more stable.
What happens when water accumulates?

By Girmay k 54
Q1) Parameters used to design pit slope?
Q2)How stripping ratio affects open pit stability?
Q3) how depth of the pit affects open pit stability?
Q4) how geological structures affect pit slope

By Girmay k 55
 UNIT OPERATIONS
In mining, unit operations can be defined as those basic steps necessary for the production of
payable material from a deposit
Theses are of two types mining operation
1. Production operations Steps contributing directly to mineral extraction
2. Auxiliary operations Steps which support the production cycle
Unit operations involved in production cycle are divided in two groups
1. Rock breakage (by drilling and blasting)
2. Material handling (loading,hauling,hoisting)
• Production cycle=drill+blast+load+haul.
• Access
• The first step in the development of a new mining operation or a pushback is gaining access to
the area to be mined. Especially when working in remote areas, an appropriately planned and
designed access road with sufficient capacity can make a substantial difference in the initial
success of a new operation.
By Girmay k 56
Cont..
• After permanent access to the new mining area has been secured, removal of topsoil and
overburden can begin.

• In mining, overburden refers to all unprofitable material that needs to be excavated to access
an ore deposit, including topsoil and overburden.

• Topsoil refers to the layer of unconsolidated material at the surface that is suitable for
sustaining plant growth. Because of the unconsolidated nature of topsoil, it often requires
different excavation techniques. Depending on climate, topography, and bedrock geology,
topsoil can vary from anywhere between centimeters and tens of meters thick.

• Overburden refers to the consolidated material underlying the topsoil and generally overlying
the ore body. If overburden is encapsulated between two layers of ore, it can be referred to as
inter burden(parting).
By Girmay k 57
Topsoil Removal
 After the initial pit outline has been staked out, vegetation should be removed and any surface
water courses should be diverted away from the site.
 As topsoil is generally free digging, scrapers, bulldozers, front-end loaders, and small
hydraulic excavators are the most common equipment used in topsoil stripping. Bulldozers can
be used for pushing material onto piles for further excavation by front-end loaders or hydraulic
excavators.

 Alternatively, they can support scraper operation by ripping soil or by pushing scrapers along
where they do not have enough traction. Graders are mostly used for precision applications
such as haul road construction

By Girmay k 58
 1) Drilling
•Drilling is the process of making a hole into a hard surface where the length of
the hole is very large compared to the diameter. In the context of mining
engineering drilling refers to making holes into a rock mass. Surface mining
requires drilling for different purposes that include:

1 Production drilling i.e. for making holes for placement of explosives for blasting. The objective
of drilling and blasting is to prepare well-fragmented loose rock amenable to excavation with
better productivity from the excavation machinery.

2 Exploration drilling for sample collections to estimate the quality and quantity of a mineral
reserve. The samples are collected as core and the drilling for such purposes are referred as
Core drilling. As diamond bits are used for such drilling, core drilling is often called diamond
By Girmay k 59
drilling.
3 Technical drilling during development of a mine for drainage, slope stability and foundation
testing purposes.

Exploration drilling Purpose:

- to explore ore bodies to a depth,
- to study internal structure of the ore bodies and rocks,
- to study the continuity of mineralization,
- to determine the thickness of the ore bodies ,
- data’s are used in reserve calculation

By Girmay k 60
 Surface mining involves removal of waste rock and subsequent winning of the mineral.
In case of deposits underlying hard and compact waste rock called overburden loosening
of the rock mass is essential prior to excavation. Thus drilling and blasting is the
important ground preparation job. drilling of holes for placement of explosives and
detonating them for blasting is required for any mining operation. Unless the rock mass is
highly weathered and very much unconsolidated .

2 Classification of Methods and Machines

 Drilling is basically method of penetrating rock. The machine that carries out the drilling
operation is called drill. Rock can be penetrated by overcoming its resistance to penetrate
by providing external energy.
 Depending on how this energy is imparted and how the broken mass produced by drilling
is removed to get new surfaces to drill, the drilling methods and the drill can be classified
into several category.
By Girmay k 61
Sl No Basis Variants Example

1 Mode of Churn or cable tool drill, jack

energy 1)Percussion hammer,
application. For shallow holes, the whole
Top Hammer
drill strings offer hammering
For hole larger than 150 mm
Bottom Hammer (Down the and deeper holes, offers
hol00e hammer or DTH) increased rod and coupling life
and less noisy.
2)Rotary Auger or rotary drill,
Diamond drill,
3)Rotary Percussion DTH, Top hammer drill
2 Size of Hole Small Hole 150-200 mm for coal
Large HoleBy Girmay k 250-315 mm for OB 62
Type of
Electric
power
Pneumatic Less costly, high noise
Hydraulic May be diesel or electrically
powered hydraulically operated
and controlled. New
development, lesser noise
Flushing Wet drilling Water flushed
Dry drilling Air flushed
Direction Vertical
Horizontal
Inclined

By Girmay k 63
 The above methods are deployed in drilling. However, one must remember that the drilling
could be carried out provided the following requirements are fulfilled.

1. The drilling bit meant for disintegrating the formation must be sufficiently hard so that it
can disintegrates the formation for a longer period.

2. The cuttings formed in the process of formation disintegration must be taken out of the hole
as soon as possible. One should avoid crushing and grinding of the drilled chips inside the
hole.

3. Drilling tool must be advanced in the intended direction of the drilled hole

4. The hole walls must be competent to avoid collapsing and blinding of the hole

5. After completing the hole the drilling components and the drill should be removed from the
place. By Girmay k 64
Cont.…
• The four main functional components of the drill system are:
• 1. Drill (source): is the prime mover, converting energy from its original form
into mechanical energy to actuate the system.
• 2. Rod (transmitter): transmits energy from the prime mover or source to the bit
or applicator.
• 3. Bit (applicator): is the applier of the energy in the system, attacking rock
mechanically
• to achieve penetration.
• 4.Fluid ; Flushing (by air or water) is needed to remove the cuttings from the drill
hole and cool the bit to prevent from bit wear.

By Girmay k 65
 Factors affecting drilling performance
Sl No
Category Factors
Operating Drill Drill power
1 Variables
1.

2. Drill Thrust
3. Drill Torque
4. Drill Rotary Speed

5. Blow energy
6. Blow frequency
Rod 1. Rod dimensions

2. Rod Geometry
3. Material Properties
Bit 1. Bit diameter
2. Bit geometry
3. Material Properties
Circulation Fluid 1. Fluid flow rate
By Girmay k
2. Fluid properties 66
2 Drill Hole Hole specifications 1. Size
Factor 2. Depth
3. Inclination
3 Rock factors Material Properties 1. Resistance to penetration
2. Porosity
3. Moisture content
4. Density
5. Shore hardness
6. compressive strength
7. Coefficient of rock strength
8. Specific energy consumption
for drilling
Geologic Condition 1. Petrologic and structural bedding
2. Fractures
3. Folds
By Girmay k
4. Faults 67
5. Joints and Rock mass composition
 State of stress 1. In situ pressures
2. Pore pressure

4 Job or service Operational variables 1. Labour quality

factor 2. supervision quality
3. Scale of Operations
4. Power availability
5. Weather conditions

Site factors and job site 1. nature and scope of task,

conditions 2. achievement targets,
working conditions,
3. site lighting conditions,
4. defects on equipment,
hazards and
5. coordination
requirements/issues.
By Girmay k 68
 1 Performance Measurement
Drilling performance is normally measured in terms of:
1) Energy or power requirement
2) Rate of penetration achieved
3) Bit wear per meter drilled
4) Cost of drilling

By Girmay k 69
TYPES OF DRILLS
 Percussion drills
1.jackhammer or sinkers 2.tripod drills
3.stop hammer 4.drifters
5.churns or well drills 6.piston drills
7.wagon drills

 Abrasion drills(rotary)
1.blast-hole drills 2.shot drills
3.diamond drills
 fusion piercing

By Girmay k 70
Percussive drilling

 In percussive drilling, the rock is broken by a combination of rotation of the bit and high-
frequency percussive impacts transmitted by the bit to the rock.

 percussive impact is delivered by either pneumatic or hydraulic pressure. Percussive drills

were originally powered by compressed air.

With smaller hole sizes (diameters up to 150 mm [6 in.]), the impact and rotation of the bit used
to fracture the rock is transmitted from the drill (top hammer) to the bit through a drill rod or
series of drill rods coupled together (referred to as a drill string).

With larger hole sizes (diameters from 75 mm to 508 mm [3 to 20 in.]), the hammer is located
down the-hole (DTH) or in-the-hole (ITH) at the bottom of the drill string immediately above
the bit, and the impact is transmitted directly to the bit. 71
By Girmay k
 hydraulically powered drills have supplanted pneumatic ones, except in the case
of small, handheld equipment such as stoppers and jackhammers.

 The advantages of hydraulic drills over pneumatic drills are the fewer moving
parts and the significantly higher penetration rates.

• The depth of percussive drilling with top hammer drills is limited to

approximately 76 m (250 ft), due mainly to losses in energy transfer at joints in the
drill string.

By Girmay k 72
• cont

 The compressed air activates a hammer that delivers impact directly to the bit.
This eliminates the loss of impact energy in joints and is a more efficient
mechanism of percussive drilling.
 Rotation of the bit is provided by the motor at the top and transferred through the
drill string.
 The diameter of the drill string, usually 150 mm (6 in.) or more, helps limit
deviation of the hole, which improves drilling accuracy.

By Girmay k 73
 Tripod drills- Mounted on tripod to provide sufficient stability, used for very hard
rocks.
 Stop hammers- Thrust end to hold the drill against the work
and usually used for “up” holes.

 Drifters- Similar to jackhammer, but so large that it

requires mechanical mounting.

By Girmay k 74
 Churns or Well drills- Reciprocating Drill consisting of a long steel
Bit mechanically lifted and dropped to disintegrate the rock.
 Piston drills- Drill rod is securely fastened to the piston and
Travels the full length of the piston stroke.
 Wagon drills- Drifter mounted on a mast supported by
two or more wheels used to drill holes at any angle from
down to slightly above horizontal.

 Jackhammer or Sinkers- Air operated drill,

mainly used for drilling vertical holes

By Girmay k 75
ABRASION DRILLS(rotary drill)
 A rotary drilling, the drill bit is rotated by applying torque at the end of the drill
string, which results in removal of chips from the face of the hole.

 Grind rock into small particles through abrasive effect of bit that rotates in hole.
TYPES-
1.Blast-hole drills
2.Shot drills
3.Diamond drills
1) Blast hole drills- Rotary drill consisting of steel pipe with drill stem on bottom of which
is roller bit that disintegrates the rock as it rotates over it.
2)Shot drills- Rotary drill whose bit consists of a steel pipe with a
roughened surface at bottom.

3)Diamond drills- Rotary drill whose bit consists of metal matrix

consisting a large number of diamonds disintegrating the rock
while rotating. By Girmay k 76
DRILL BITS
 TYPES OF DRILL BITS-
 Detachable bits- Removable from the drill when required.

 Forged bits- Made up of single length of drill steel and are available at several shapes.

By Girmay k 77
• Power for bit rotation and penetration is either diesel or electric.

 Bit selection is based on hole size and depth, rock type operational

requirements.
Rotary drilling
 Drag bits are used for 75–250 mm (3–10 in.) holes in soft rock. •
Tricone bits are used for 75–300 mm (3–12 in.) holes in medium and harder rock.
Larger roller bits are used for holes larger than 300 mm (12 in.).

By Girmay k 78
• 3. jet piercing, which was formerly used to drill blast holes in taconites and other
very hard, abrasive rocks, has largely been superseded by rotary drilling with
tricone bits with tungsten carbide (TC) buttons.

By Girmay k 79
 Drilling parameter

BURDEN (b) - is defined as the distance between the individual rows of holes. it is also used to
describe the distance from the front row of holes to the free face.

when the bench face is not vertical the burden on this front row of holes varies from crest to toe.

Burden distance can be calculated as

2𝑆𝐺𝑒
B=( +1.5)*De where B =Burden in ft or meter
𝑆𝐺𝑟

SGe=specific gravity of explosive SGr= specific gravity of rock

De=Diameter of explosive

• spacing (s) - is the distance between holes in any given row.

• Spacing is determined by initiation timing and stiffens ratio

By Girmay k 80
 Stiffness ration is the ratio of bench height to burden distance.
𝐿
SR=
𝐵

 Instantaneous initiation and SR is between 1 and 4

𝐿+2𝐵
S= S=spacing B=burden L= Bench height
3

 Instantaneous initiation and SR is greater than or equal to 4

S=2B S=spacing B=burden
 Delay initiation and SR is between 1 and 4
𝐿+7𝐵
S= S=spacing B=burden L= Bench height
8

 Delay initiation and SR is greater than or equal to 4

S=1.4B S=spacing B=burden
 Spacing in the field should be within plus or minus 15% of calculated value.
By Girmay k 81
• Sub grade (j) - generally the holes are drilled below the desired final grade. this distance is
referred to as the sub grade drilling or simply the sub-drill.
SD = 0.3*B
excessive sub-drill results in
1. A waste of drilling and blasting expenditures
2. An increase in ground vibrations
3. Undesirable shattering of the bench floor. This in turn creates drilling problems and
deviations for the bench below.
4. increases the chances for cutoffs (misfires) and over break.
stemming (t) - a certain length of hole near the collar is left uncharged. this will be referred to as
the stemming length (t) whether or not it is left unfilled or filled with drill cuttings/crushed rock.
T=0.7B

By Girmay k 82
 Placing the charge too close to the collar can result in back break, fly rock and early release of
the explosive gases with resulting poor fragmentation.
 On the other hand, increasing the length of stemming may reduce the energy concentration in
the collar region to the point where large boulders result.
• bench height (h) – is the vertical height from the toe to thecrest.
• drilled length (l) - is equal to the bench height plus the sub-drill.
I=h+j
• length of the explosive column (le)(Powder column length) - is equal to the hole length
minus the stemming. this column may be divided into sections (decks) containing.
• Le=I –T or L+J-T

By Girmay k 83
 Each hole of diameter D can be thought of as having to break its own individual area (AR) as
outlined by the dashed lines.
AR = B × S
The volume required to be broken by a hole of unit length is
VR = B × S × 1
The amount of available explosive energy (EA) is determined by the explosive volume (Ve)
present in that unit length of borehole
𝜋
Ve = De2
4
where
De = explosive diameter
times the explosive bulk strength expressed as energy per unit volume (Ee)
𝜋
EA= De2 *Ee
4

By Girmay k 84
 The volume(Ve) and mass (We) of explosive loaded in to each hole is given by, respectively
𝜋
Ve = De2 (L-T)
4
We = Ve ρ Where We=mass of explosive and Ve=volume of explosive
ρ =density of explosive
 total amount of explosive required (TEXP) is
TEXP = We × n
n = number of holes
 The volume of rock which will be broken is
VR = n B × S × H
Using a rock density of , a total of
TR = ρR*VR

The resulting powder factor (PF) defined as the amount of explosive required to break one ton of
rock is PF=TEXP/ TR

By Girmay k 85
 cont….
• free face

spacing

• Burden

stemming

l
h

•
By GirmaySub
k drill 86
• Powder factor is the ratio of total weight of explosive in the powder column in kg or Ib to
total volume of rock fractured in cubic meter or yd.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑏
• Powder factor=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑑

E.g1 A project in granite rock will have an average bench height of 20 m. An explosive having
specific gravity of 1.2 and the rock having 2.6 specific gravity has proposed. The contractor
equipment can easily drill 3 m diameter hole. Assume the packaged diameter of explosive will be
2.5 m and loading density is 2.55 kg/m. Delay blasting techniques will be used.
a) Stemming distance

b) Sub drill distance

c) Spacing interval

d) Powder length (column)

e) Powder factor in kg/m3
By Girmay k 87
 Drilling pattern
• There are mainly three types of drilling patterns:
• square pattern SPACING=BURDEN

______________________________________________________
staggered pattern

____________________________________________________
rectangle pattern SPACING >BURDAN
•
By Girmay k 88
 Selection of drilling pattern varies with
i. the type and size of the drill’s used,
ii. depth of hole,
iii. kind of rock,
iv. quantity and rapidity of the explosive
v. amount of steemmining.

By Girmay k 89
 2 Blasting
 In mining and quarrying operation, the main objective is to extract the largest possible
quantity at minimum cost. the material may include ore, coal, aggregate for construction
and also the waste rock required to remove the above useful material.

 the blasting operation must be carried out to provide quality and quantity requirements of
production in such a way that overall profit of mining are maximized.

Detonation occurs when the rate of reaction in the explosive product exceeds the speed of sound
(sonic velocity) in the product, thus creating a shockwave. Detonation velocities for commercial
explosives range from 1,500 to 7,830 m/s, which is much higher than the sonic velocities.

Deflagration is a process where the reaction occurs at rates much lower than the sonic velocity
of the explosive material, so that no shock (primary pressure wave) is produced within the
explosive material.
• By Girmay k 90
By Girmay k 91
 Explosives
Explosives are chemical compounds or mixtures which can rapidly change into other
systems or substances under the influence of some external impulse, such as spark,
impact, or heating, liberating great quantities of heat and gases.

These causes disintegration of the material surrounding the charge.

PROPERTIES of explosives
 Different working conditions have made it necessary to manufacture explosives with
differing properties appropriate to the varying purposes for which they are used. In the
ideal conditions of dry blast holes a simple explosive can be used, while under wet
conditions, more sophisticated products are called for.
The most important characteristics of an explosive are:
By Girmay k 92
Velocity of Detonation : It is the speed at which detonation wave travels
through the media, it depends upon Explosive type.

VOD varies form 2500 M/Sec – 5800.

the high velocity explosives are used where a fast, shattering, fragmenting or
cutting action is desired, and the lower velocity products where objects or large
quantities of loose materials are to be moved or lifted without the need of
extensive fragmentation.

By Girmay k 93
• STRENGTH; refers to the energy content of an explosive & the ability of the explosive
to do work, and is dependent upon the volume of gas which is liberated during the
explosion. It is a measure of the power and force it will develop.

• The strength of an explosive is in most cases expressed as a percentage of the strength of

blasting gelatin.

 The weight strength (SWT) is defined as the explosive energy per unit weight (mass). For its
calculation, the problem becomes that of defining which “energy” to use. The simplest is to use
the theoretical heat of explosion (Q) calculated based upon the constituents. For ANFO
(94.5%/5.5%) the value of Q is Q = 912kcal/kg Hence the weight strength is
SWT = 912kcal/kg

By Girmay k 94
 The bulk strength (S BULK) is defined as the explosive energy per unit volume and has units
of kcal/m3, cal/cm3, etc. Since the cost per unit volume of hole created in the rock mass by
drilling is substantial it is generally desired to pack as much explosive power into this volume
as possible. Thus for most applications, the bulk strength is more important than the weight
strength. The two are related through the density.
SBULK = ρe* SWT
Eg1) For ANFO with a density ρ=0.8g/cm3, the bulk strength is therefore SBULK = 0.8g/cm3 ×
912cal/gm = 730cal/cm3 = 730kcal/m3

By Girmay k 95
 Assume for example that a certain explosive has a heat of explosion equal to 890cal/g and a
density of 1.3g/cm3. The weight strength of this explosive relative to ANFO is denoted by
SANFO. Since for ANFO the heat of explosion is equal to 912cal/gm and the density is
0.8g/cm3 then for the new explosive the relative weight strength is given by
890
 S ANFO = =0.976
912

 On the other hand, the bulk strength relative to ANFO denoted by BANFO is
890∗1.3
 B ANFO =1.592
912∗0.8

DETONATION STABILITY Means that the detonation goes through the entire
explosives column.

By Girmay k 96
 CONT…..
 PROPAGATION ABILITY; Is expressed in the length of air-gap over which a donor
cartridge of an explosive will detonate a receptor cartridge under unconfined conditions.
• If the sensitiveness is low, there can interruptions in the detonation if the column of explosive
in the charged blast hole in not continuous or some obstacle has come between the various
charges. An explosive with too high a sensitiveness can cause propagation between adjacent blast
holes if holes are closely spaced. The propagation ability is higher in confined conditions than in
unconfined ones.
• THE SENSITIVITY of an explosive is expressed as a minimum energy needed to initiate the
explosive.
• explosive are divided into:
• - Cap sensitive explosives
• - Non-cap sensitive explosives By Girmay k 97
• The Cap-sensitive Explosives can be initiated by a # 6 or # 8 blasting cap.
Cont.….
• The Non-cap Sensitive Explosives need to be primed with an amount of high
explosives in order to obtain initiation and stable detonation.
A primer is the explosive unit (cartridge, cast primer) which contains a detonator
(blasting cap, detonating cord)
 "Sensitiveness" refers to the propagating ability of an explosive, And "Sensitivity" to
the ease with which it can be initiated.
 Explosives must have a sufficient degree of sensitiveness to ensure the complete
detonation of all cartridges throughout the entire charge.
 In other words, the detonating wave must be initiate all the explosives in the charge
at their intended velocity, and this obviously requires a degree of sensitiveness.
By Girmay k 98
• DENSITY ;-Is specific weight of an explosive expressed as kilograms per liter(Kg/l) Grams per
cubic centimeter (g/c.c). Explosives are available in a wide range of density. The term "Density"
generally refers to the weight of an object when compared with the weight of the same volume of
water. The density determines the possible charge concentration in the blast hole.

THE WATER RESISTANCE;- Is an explosive’s ability to withstand water penetration and is

normally expressed as the time the product can be underwater and still detonate reliably.

Explosives which have no inherent water resistance properties can be used in water filled blast
holes if proper packaging material, such as plastic bags, are used. ANFO poured into water
filled blast hole will deteriorate very quickly.

Some can withstand long exposure to water. Others will lose their efficiency quickly and
become desensitized if exposed to water.

• When blasting is to be done under wet conditions, a water resistant Explosive is

By Girmay k 99
preferable.
• SAFETY IN HANDLING - Is of the most importance as the transportation and usage of an explosive
should be carried out without any risks for the personnel involved. Before an explosive is approve by the
authorities it is subjected to extensive tests.
1. The drop hammer test determine the height from which a weight fall on the explosive in order to create
a detonation.
2. The friction test, in which friction under increased pressure is applied to a small amount of explosive.
3. The projectile impact test determines the bullet velocity needed to reaction in the explosive.
4. The heat test determines how much heat an explosive can withstand before a reaction starts.
THE ENVIROMENTAL PROPRTIES are more and more taken into consideration. The aim is to
minimize the toxic fumes and such negative side-effects as headaches and skin irritation when handling
nitroglycerin explosives.
• For “open-pit (quarry)” operations toxic fumes rarely create any problem, but for underground
operations, it is essential that toxious gases are kept to an acceptable level.
100
• The Oxygen balance must be considered in mining applications. An excess of oxygen in the
explosive can form nitrogen oxides (No and No2) and a deficit of oxygen will form carbon
monoxide (CO). In open air blasting these gases rarely cause any problem as the blasting fumes
are rapidly dispersed after the detonation.

• The shelf life (storage life): of explosive is very important as the explosive frequently has to be
kept for a long time in storage, often under unfavorable conditions.

 Plastic nitroglycerin explosives should not be stored in high temperatures, as they tend to
soften and the salts in the explosive penetrate the paper wrapping of the cartridge, thus deforming
them. Storage temperatures a round + 32oc should be avoided, especially if the temperature
fluctuates around that figure. Powder type explosives in cartridge are sensitive to moisture. In a
humid environment, the salt in the explosive tend to form deposits on the cartridge, thus
hardening it. ANFO is sensitive to humidity and cakes easily when stored under such conditions.
By Girmay k 101
Properties of NG & AN :
 Nitro Glycerine (NG) - it is a liquid, insoluble in water, highly sensitive to stock,
friction and heat.
 In all Explosives of N.G. based on nitroglycol is mixed for lowering the
freezing point, used for hardest rocks and metals and for shooting oil wells.
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) :
 It is a weak Explosives base. Difficult to initiate, so a sensitizer like NG or TNT
is used.
 It is Oxygen positive, soluble in water. Tendency to form hard
cakes.
By Girmay k 102
• CLASSIFICATIONS

The explosives used in mining can nowadays be classified as:

A)High explosives:- Explosive materials that can be caused to detonate by means of a blasting
cap when unconfined (e.g., dynamite)

B)Low explosives:- Explosive materials that can be caused to deflagrate when confined (e.g.,
black powder, safety fuses, igniter cords, fuse lighters, and “display fireworks”)

C)Blasting agents:- Materials that can be detonated but are not a detonator (e.g., ANFO and
certain water gels
1)High explosives are the chemical mixture that can be detonated with a #8 strength blasting cap,
and liberates gas, heat and great pressure. High explosives have detonating velocities in the range
1,500-7,500 m/s. By Girmay k 103
 The ESSENTIAL CONSTITUENTS OF AN EXPLOSIVE ARE:-

 a) Oxidizers to provide the required oxygen eg. Ammonium Nitrate and Sodium
Nitrate

 b) Fuels to sustain the reaction eg. Oil, Sulpher, charcoal, Aluminum

 c) Sensitizers to promote the explosive reaction Nitro-glycerin, TNT, voids and

bubbles.

 TYPES OF EXPLOSIVE CONT……

A) GELATIN DYNAMITES – The main constituents of gelatins are Nitro-

glycerine and nitrocellulose
By Girmay k 104
 They are rubber like and extremely waterproof used for very hard rock, underwater blasting,
mud capping and for priming other blasting agents. In the range of gelatin dynamite, explosives
ammonium nitrate is used to replace nitro-glycerin (NG) in varying proportions. The higher the
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) content the cheaper the explosive. But inversely the lower will be the
water resistance.
B)DYNAMITES: - it is nitro-glycerin based product used for hard rock.
2)BLASTING AGENTS This classification includes any mixture consisting of an Oxidizer and
a fuel which is intended for blasting. The final mixed product cannot be detonated by a No. 8
strength blasting cap when unconfined.

A)ANFO the mixture of about 94% ammonium nitrate prills and 6% fuel oil represents the
simplest form of combination of Oxidizer and fuel to create an explosive. It is by far the cheapest
explosive available. By Girmay k 105
 Ammonium Nitrate is extensively used as a component of other Nitro-glycerine based
explosives, as well as being the main constituent of ANFO, slurries and very recently
emulsions.

 Excess oil gives an Oxygen deficiency with a consequent loss of explosive performance.

 With too little oil an excess of Oxygen is developed causing a reduced velocity of detonation
and a reduced energy of reaction.

 ANFO cannot be initiated on its own by heat, shock or by a detonator. It must be detonated by
a primer, a cartridge of high explosive with detonator and the detonation pressure of the primer
should be greater than that of the ANFO.

 Due to its cheapness, ease and safety of both transport and site manufacture ANFO is the most
used bulk explosive in surface mining (Quarrying).
By Girmay k 106
BUT it has two limitations:- It is not cap sensitive –

;-It has no water resistance.

 ANFO requires a strong primer for reliable initiation, and in long columns will require boosters
to ensure complete detonation. Where water is present ANFO should be protected by plastic
hoses.

 Mixing One of the great advantages of ANFO is that it is convenient and inherently safe to use.
ANFO can supplied pre-mixed in 10-25 kg bags, which are simply poured into blast holes. In
large surface operations, quantities of correctly proportioned and mixed

 ANFO are charged quickly and efficiently by bulk ANFO mix trucks. The AN prills are blown
out of a tank by means of a compressed air, through a nozzle at which fuel oil is added from a
separate small tank, and into the blast hole. For small operations a hand-operated concrete
By Girmay k 107
 Properties OF ANFO

 Fuel oil content:- The proportion of FO is 5.5-6.0% by weight, a mix that gives maximum
energy and VOD. Too much FO increases the production of carbon monoxide and too little
increases the proportion of oxides of nitrogen. The most efficient, perfectly oxygen-balanced
mix is at 5.7% FO.

 Density:- Loose-poured ANFO has a density of 0.8 to 0.85 g/cm3. This low density means that
the bulk strength is relatively low. The density can be increased up to about 1.0 g/cm3 by
pneumatic loading (‘blow-loading’). Blow loading increases the relative effective energy and
the VOD.

 Water resistance:- Ammonium nitrate readily absorbs water from its surroundings. ANFO
which contains more than about 10% water usually fails to detonate. ANFO can only be used in
By Girmay k 108
dry holes, unless it is packaged in a suitable waterproof container.
B)SLURRIES:- Slurries like ANFO are ammonium Nitrate based but they are full water
resistance. They actually contain water as a constituent about 15%. The AN is dissolved in this
water at high temperature and a gel is formed by the addition of cross-linking gums. This gel
prevents water entering, or leaving, the explosive, and keeps in suspension the other solid
constituents.

C)EMULSION EXPLOSIVE:- An emulsion is an intimate mixture of two liquids that do not

dissolve in each other. An emulsion explosive consists of liquid ammonium nitrate mixed with an
oil or wax fuel, and an emulsifier/stabilizer.

 Bulk emulsive explosives are particularly attractive for open pit mining. Water resistance is
excellent. Typically they have very high velocity of detonation properties and are ideal in hard
ground.
By Girmay k 109
Various important blasting accessories are as
1) Safety Fuse
2) Plastic Ignitor Cord.
3) Detonators.
 Plain Detonators
 Electric Detonators
 Instantaneous Electric Detonators
 Long delay Detonators
 Short Delay Detonators
 Non Electric Detonators
4) Cord Relay
5) Detonating Cord By Girmay k 110
6) Magnadet
7) Anodet
8) Ohm Meter
9) Exploder

By Girmay k 111
 Safety Fuse : A cord of special black powder wrapped in envelope made up of various
layers of textile yarn & water proofing material.
 It consists of black powder core contained in several inner and outer wrappings covered with
water proofing compound.

 Used for directly igniting low Explosive

Detonating cord:- is simply an exploding fuse. It looks similar to safety fuse in appearance, but
unlike safety fuse you cannot light detonating cord with a match. The core is usually PETN
(Penta-erythri-toltetra-nitrate), which has a velocity of detonation of about 7,000m/sec.

 When detonating cord explodes it sends a shock wave along its whole length which is capable
of detonating any cap sensitive high explosive that it comes into contact with.

 Detonating cord firing systems are often substituted for electric methods of firing under
By Girmay k 112
conditions when stray electric currents may present problems for electric blasting.
 Plastic Ignitor Cord : Used for ignition of several fuses in quick succession in any desire

sequence. It is 1.8-2.5 mm dia fuse, which gives intense flame at uniform rate
 PLAIN DETONATORS : Used for initiating high explosives but are them selves ignited by
safety fuse consist of 6mm dia Al. Tube partly filled with detonating charges
 A detonator consists of an aluminum or copper tube, which is open at one hand for the insertion
of the safety fuse, and with a small base charge in the other end of a powerful high explosive
(PETN), and a priming charge of Lead Azide.
 Modern detonators have a base charge of PETN (Penta Erithetetrol Tetra Nitrate) with a
priming charge of A.S.A. (Lead Azide, Lead Styphnate and Al. Powder) strength depends upon
amount of base charge. No.6 & No.8, No.6=0.22gm. of PETN & 35mm long. No.8=0.45gm.
PETN & 48 mm long both contains 0.2 gm ASA.
By Girmay k 113
Detonating relays are used to introduce delay elements into detonating cord systems. They are
open at both ends to receive the cut ends of detonating cord.

 When several holes are to be fired at one time, the detonating cord from each hole is jointed
rigidly to a common detonating cord, which is fixed by blasting cap (donator). The cord
explodes with such violence that will detonate dynamite through contact only.

 In the case of multi-row blasting, a delay can be obtained between the individual rows by
using delay unit. Delay units can be located between the drill holes in the same row. A normal
delay time is 20ms.

 Electrical detonator These are fired electrically.

 INSTANTTANEOUS ELECTRIC DETONATORS : Comprises of Cu of Al. Tube of 7mm
dia and a little longer than the plain detonator so as to accommodate the fuse head.
By Girmay k 114
 ELECTRIC DELAY DETONATORES : Special use in shaft sinking tunneling, drifting where
successive rounds are better fired in a certain sequence with adequate time interval in between
rounds so that each round breaks into clear free face. In delay detonators a time lag is
deliberately introduced between the firing of the fuse head andthe explosion ofthe detonator.
 LONG DELAY DETONATORS : These are also known as half second delay detonators
having nominal delay interval of around 300 to 500 ms for each. These are widely used for
tunneling work and generally from 1 to 10 Nos. are available.
 SHORT DELAY : Short Delay electric detonators are same as long delay in construction and
strength and above nominal delay interval of 25 ms. For each delay.
 Delay composition of long delay detonator comprise of antimony and KMNO while it is Red
Lead & Silicon for short delay.
By Girmay k 115
NON ELECTRIC DETONATORS
 Non-electric delay detonator basically consist of a length of plastic single tube to which is
fitted a powerful delay detonators.
 The single tube is made of a special plastic material. The outer dia being 3 mm and inner dia
1.0 mm. Its inner surface is lightly coated with a mixture of reactive powders which provide
the energy transmitting medium with in the tubing on initiation by a detonator cord or by a
detonator a shock wave propagates along inside the tube at a velocity of about 2000 M/sec.
without bursting the tubing and therefore having no effect on any Explosives through which is
passes.
 The resulting flame front ignites the top of the delay element with in the detonator tube.

By Girmay k 116
DETONATING FUSE :
 It serves the same purpose as detonators and directly initiates the high Explosives while them
needing a detonator for initiation. Useful in simultaneous multiple shot firing minimizing the
use of several detonators.
Advantageous in blasting long hole. It comprises of PETN (Penta Erithetetrol Tetranitrate) train
enclosed in a tape wrapped in textile yarn and whole thing covered by plastic. Finished dia 5 mm.
OHM METER :
 Used for testing the continuity and resistance of blasting circuits. These are of two types.
 Powered by low voltage hand operated generator.
EXPLODER (blasting machine)
Used for firing shots electrically, these are of two types:
i) Generator type :- Magneto of dynamo (for large capacity) operated by a quick twist of strong
down ward push of handle.
By Girmay k 117
ii) Condenser discharge type :- Can be battery of dynamo powered.
Connecting wire is used to connect the different series in parallel and to connect the blasting
round to the firing cable. Connecting wire may also be used to extend the length of the leg wires.

 The connecting wire must be properly insulated and have a low resistance. If the connecting
wires have high resistance the capacity of the blasting machine will be reduced.
 used connecting wires must not be used as they may cause misfires
Firing cable is used to connect the blasting round with the blasting machine. The firing cable
must be twin wired to reduced the risk of induction. The twin wire cables to be used must be
approved for use as firing cable. The firing cable must be completely insulated.

 The firing cable should have as low resistance as possible. High resistance in the firing cable
leads to reduced effectiveness of the blasting machine.
 The cable should be kept on a cable winch and wound up to protect it from damage. It should
be specially colored so it is not mistaken forByother
Girmay k electric cables . 118
The Components of an Electric Firing System

1. Electric Power Source:- Which may be a battery; a twist or push-type generator blasting
machine, a condenser discharge blasting machine, a portable electric generator, or a AC power
line.

2 Wires.

a] Leading Wire:- Sometimes called "Firing Wire" or "Shooting Lines", which connects the
power source to the blasting circuit. This should This should be a two conductor solid copper wire
well.

b] Connecting Wire is a smaller, solid copper single conductor insulated wire used to connect
individual charges which are too far apart to be connected by simply joining the leg-wires on the
caps. This is usually destroyed or damaged by the blast and should not be reused.
By Girmay k 119
c] Leg Wires:- are short wires attached to and a part of electric blasting caps. They are most often
made of copper and plastic covered.

3. Electric Blasting Caps May be either instantaneous firing or delayed firing type.

4. Primer Cartridge:- a properly assembled and positioned combination of an electric blasting cap
and a high explosive cartridge.

 Electric Blasting Circuits There are three types of circuits commonly used in electric blasting.
They are Series, Parallel and parallel series circuits. These types of circuits shows below.

By Girmay k 120
Series' circuit
• Blasting circuit resistance can calculated by
• R= σ𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑐 where Ri is resistance of detonator ,Rf is resistance of
fire line and Rc is resistance of connecting line.
• All resistance are in ohm.
• Ohms law gives the voltage required from a given power supply to provide the
necessary current if the blasting resistance circuit is know.
𝑣 = 𝐼𝑅
Where v is voltage of power supply in volt I is current in amper
The power supply must have sufficient capacity to feed the circuit with the
required current and voltage.
To compute the power need in watt of series circuit
• P= 𝑉𝐼 𝑃 = 𝑉2Τ𝑅 OR 𝑃 =I2 *R

By Girmay k 121
By Girmay k 122
 Parallel circuit
• For parallel circuit the blasting resistance is
1
R =Rf + 1
σ𝑛
𝑖
𝑅𝑖
and the total current is I=σ𝑛𝑖 𝐼𝑖

E.g Six detonators each having resistance of 1.5 ohm are connected in parallel. A 15 V
exploder is connected to the detonators by two single-core cables of resistance 3 ohm each. The
current in the circuit in Ampere is

By Girmay k 123
PROCESS OF BLASTING
1.The blast holes are made and cleaned by using the tools.
2.The charge of explosive placed at the bottom.
3.Remaining portion is filled with clay and tamped.
4.Fuse is inserted, kept projecting 15-20 cm above the rock surface.
5. There after free end of fuse is fired by detonator.

By Girmay k 124
CONTROLLED BLASTING TECHNIQUES The term, controlled blasting, is used to describe
several techniques that limit damage to the rock at the perimeter of the excavation by preventing
the force of a blast from continuing into the side walls. Normal blasting propagates cracks into the
surrounding rock. These cracks can reduce the stability of the opening.

The purpose of controlled blasting

 Over-break
 Reduce ground vibrations
 Reduce fractures within remaining rock walls
 Reduce noise
 Reduce dilution / waste of ore etc.
 The results of controlled blasting are a function of the geology, especially the number and
orientation of joint and fracture planes and the quality of the final rock surface that is required.
By Girmay k 125
 Line drilling
This system involves a single row of closely spaced uncharged holes along the neat excavation
line.

 This provides a plane of weakness to which the primary blast can break.

Line drill holes are generally percussive hammer holes having spaced two to four times the hole
diameter, drilled along the excavation line..

 The blast holes directly adjacent to the line drill holes (buffer holes) are generally loaded lighter
(about 50% of primary holes) and are closely spaced (about 50 to 75 %) than primary holes.

This technique gives maximum protection to the host rock to preserve its original strength.

The disadvantage of this system is high drilling cost due to closed spacing and results are often
unsatisfactory because of poor hole alignment.
By Girmay k 126
 Trim (Cushion) blasting
• Like line drilling trim or cushion blasting involves a single row of holes along the
specified final excavation line.
• This technique generally uses 2 to 4 inch diameter holes.
• Holes are loaded with light charge, well-distributed, completely stemmed and fired after
the main excavation is removed.
• By firing the trim holes with minimum or no delay between holes, the detonation tend
to shear the rock web between holes and give a smooth wall with minimum over-break.
• It is better to put trim holes just before removing the final berm.
• As compare to line drilling technique trim or cushion blasting is simpler and economical
as increased hole spacing are used.
By Girmay k 127
 Smooth (contour or perimeter)blasting
• Smooth blasting, also called contour blasting, perimeter blasting, or sculpture blasting, is the
most widely used method of controlling over break in underground openings such as drifts and
stopes (benches).

• Smooth blasting is similar to pre splitting in that an additional row of holes is drilled at the
perimeter of the excavation. These holes contain light loads and are more closely spaced than
the other holes in the round.

• Unlike pre splitting, the smooth blast holes are fired after the main blast. Usually, this is done by
loading and connecting the entire round and firing the perimeter holes one delay later than the
last hole in the round

By Girmay k 128
 Pre-splitting
 Pre splitting, sometimes called pre shearing, is similar to line drilling except that
the holes are drilled slightly farther apart and are loaded very lightly. Presplit holes
are fired before any of the adjacent main blast holes. The light explosive charges
propagate a crack between the holes. In badly fractured rock, unloaded guide holes
may be drilled between the loaded holes.

 The light powder load may be obtained by using specially designed slender
cartridges, partial or whole cartridges taped to a detonating cord down line, an
explosive cut from a continuous reel, or heavy grain detonating cord.

 The presplit holes can be fired with the main blast by firing the presplit holes on
the first delay period. By Girmay k 129
 Muffle blasting
• Fly-rock is another important adverse impact of blasting operations, specially, when
conducted in the vicinity of dense human habitation / congested areas.

• Muffling or covering of blast holes properly before blasting, is the common solution to
prevent fly-rock from damaging human habitants and structures. 13 damaging human
habitants and structures.

• Generally, mat or mesh (40 mm x 40 mm size) made of preferably of locally available

steel ropes (5 to 6 mm) are used for muffling purpose. Sand bags weighing 40 to 50 kg
are kept over the mesh at an interval of 3 m.

• Efficiency of arresting of fly-rock depends mainly on the quality of muffling system

implemented.
By Girmay k 130
 3 Excavation
Power shovel Front-end loader

Bull Dozer

By Girmay k 131
Scrapers(soil) Dragline

DUMPER(TRUCK)

Belt conveyor

By Girmay k 132
4 Haulage
Conditions of open pit
•

Truck
Belt Conveyor mining
Auxiliary
Operations of open ore strength: any
pit mining Rock Strength: Any
 Health and Safety
Deposit Shape: any but preferably tabular
 Environmental Control
 Ground Control Deposit Dip: any but preferably low
 Power Supply Deposit Size: Large, Thick
 Water Disposal Ore Grade: can be very low
 Material Supply
Ore Uniformity: uniform, variable
 Maintenance
 Rehabilitation Depth: Shallow to intermediate

By Girmay k 133
 advantages of open pit mining Disadvantages of open pit

 High Productivity High Capital investment

 Lowest Cost Surface damaged
Require large Deposit
High Production Rate
Weather detrimental
 Early Production Slope stability
 Low labor requirement Waste Disposal
Good recovery
Good health and safety

By Girmay k 134
Mine reclamation
 The purpose of reclamation is to upgrade the physical character of all or part of a mining are
after the mineral values have been removed and,there after,toprotect the surrounding
environment from contamination.
 In surface mining operations, the three largest areas that are reclaimed are the mine extraction,
the mine waste dump and the mill tailings areas. This section pertains to the first two items.
 If the commodity extracted is a bedded deposit of large extent and of relatively show depth
such as in coal mines, the backfilling of worked-out areas is a common method of waste
disposal and reclamation. Waste material removed from the initial box cut or pit either be
stockpiled and later transported to fill the final excavation or the stockpile could be reclaimed
and not moved
By Girmay k 135
 CHAPTER THREE
strip mining
Used for near-surface, laterally continuous, bedded deposits such as coal,
stratified ores such as iron ore, and surficial deposits (nickel laterite or bauxite).

When ore bodies are flat-lying and close to surface, it is sometimes economical to remove
the overlying rock to expose the ore body.

Strip mining is ideally applied where the surface of the ground and the ore body itself
are relatively horizontal and not too deep under the surface, and a wide area is
available to be mined in a series of strips.

The surface soil is stripped off and stockpiled for later land reclaimation.

A stripping dragline with a long-boom or long reach shovels are common.

By Girmay k 136
 The pits are shallower that open-pit mines, and the overburden is “hind-cast” directly into
adjacent mined out panels.

 It is a very low-cost, high-productivity method of mining.

 Favorable conditions are:
 Relatively thin overburden (0-50 m maximum otherwise stripping ration and cost of stripping
becomes too high).
 Regular and constant surface topography and coal layers (not more than 20º variation from
horizontal on the coal seam –topography can vary more since pre-stripping can be used to level
it –but this is expensive to apply).
 Extensive area of reserves (to give adequate life of mine (LOM) and to cover all capital loan
repayments –typically more than 20 years life at 4-14mt per annum production).
By Girmay k 137
By Girmay k 138
Strip Mining:
The cheapest and safest method, but can have a significant impact environmentally on the surface.
Why……………..?
 The ore is close to the surface of the land (30m) but has one or more layers of rock and dirt on
top of it. To mine the ore, these layers have to be taken off.
 This mining is done in long, narrow strips.When the ore is done in one strip, the miners begin
to create another strip next to it. The waste, dirt, and rock that they take off of the top of the
next strip is put on top of the last one.
 Large-scale continuous bucket excavators are gaining popularity.
 These large scale machines are designed for high capacity output and are tremendous in size,
highly productive, and very expensive. So?
By Girmay k 139
Strip-mining: Blast, scoop off rock overburden, and then scoop out ore material. Fairly shallow.
 Economics of strip mining depend on stripping ratio
 Large land area can be involved, especially for coal and bauxite.

By Girmay k 140
 Strip mining" is the practice of mining a seam of mineral by first removing a long strip of
overlying soil and rock (the overburden). It is most commonly used to mine coal or tar sand.
 Strip mining is only practical when the ore body to be excavated is relatively near the surface.
This type of mining uses some of the largest machines on earth, including bucket-wheel
excavators. There are two forms of strip mining. The more common method is:-
i)"Area stripping", which is used on fairly flat terrain, to extract deposits over a large area. As
each long strip is excavated, the overburden is placed in the excavation produced by the previous
strip.
ii) "Contour stripping" involves removing the overburden above the mineral seam near the
outcrop in hilly terrain, where the mineral outcrop usually follows the contour of the land.
Contour stripping is often followed by auger mining into the hillside, to remove more of the
mineral. This method commonly leaves behindBy Girmay
terraces
k in mountain sides. 141
 Walking draglines have been for many years the most popular machine for overburden
excavation in this type of mining due to their flexibility, utility and availability, but more
importantly, their low operating costs for waste mining.
 The dragline is a typical combined cyclic excavator and material carrier since it both excavates
material and dumps it directly (with out the use of trucks or conveyor belts.)
 the dragline sits above the waste or overburden strip block, usually 50m or so wide, on the high
wall side and excavates the material in front of itself to uncover the top of the coal seam, and
then dumps the overburden on the low-wall or spoil side of the strip.

By Girmay k 142
 In a dragline operation, two ling walls are formed in the initial box-cut. One of these, the low
wall, remains and is eventually covered by spoil. The other, the high wall, is progressively
excavated and occupies a new position with each strip.
 The maximum high wall height is usually of the order of 45-50m, with a variable depth of
chopping or pre stripping above the dragline working level.
 For maximum productivity, a long strip is required (ideally over 2km in length) to reduce
excessive “dead-heading” time and to accommodate the various in-and ex-pit activities and
floor stocks or buffers (the amount of production stock available between mining cycle
activities- typically drilled, blasted, exposed, coal-on-floor, drilled coal and blasted coal).

By Girmay k 143
Strip mine layout
 The fundamental objective of any commercial mining operation is the extraction of the mineral
deposit at the lowest overall cost in order to maximize profits and resource utilization. In strip
mining the selection of cut parameters, both in terms of direction and width, contributes
significantly to the overall efficiency and profitability of the operation. The initial decision to
be taken, following selection of the method itself, is with regard to the location of the first strip
(the box-cut) and cut direction.
 Box cut orientation and direction of advance
 Box-cut orientation is frequently determined with due consideration to excavation volumes
and strip ratios, costs, economic returns, property boundaries, transport gradients or pit
drainage and important geotechnical constraints.

By Girmay k 144
 The selected cut direction usually has a major influence on the high wall stability, as its choice
can cause particular joint sets, shear planes or faults to be favorably or unfavorably orientated
in terms of slope stability.
The primary cut directions generally considered in a gently dipping mineral deposits as illustrated
below
1. Parallel to the coal outcrop limit or strike, advancing in a down dip direction.
2. Parallel to the strike of the coal deposit, advancing in an up-dip direction
3. Parallel to the dip of the coal deposit, advancing along strike.
4. Oblique cuts.

By Girmay k 145
 When selecting a strike box-cut with up-dip advance, the large volume of waste material from
the initial box cut requires a larger spoil pile area of correspondingly greater height, and given
the same rate of coal production, would require an initially larger overburden strip capacity.
 Economically, cuts positioned parallel to the dip of the coal deposit are less favorable than
strike cuts with down-dip advance, but their selection can be justified by overriding
geotechnical and environmental considerations. Coal output from such an operation is constant
over the project life even though short term fluctuations in coal exposure rates will be
experienced depending on the relative position of the dragline along the cut.
 In practice, site boundaries often dictate the orientation of the initial box-cut, and may result in
oblique cuts. In this case, the specific advantages that would accrue, compared to the
disadvantages of fluctuating coal exposure rates, are very much dependent on the box-cut
orientation with respect to coal seam and overburden.
By Girmay k 146
Glory Holing
 This kind of operation is uncommon, as it involves a mine opening at the surface, from which
ore is removed by gravity through raises connected to adit haulage ways beneath, and by
trimming the ore to the surface on the haulage level.
 The glory hole method is best suited to mining on a hillside, and irregular deposits can be
cleanly mined without dilution by waste wall rock. Narrow veins have been mined by glory
hole; in these cases the “hole” becomes narrow and long. The benches are mined away as work
descends to the bottom of the deposit or to the haulage way, so that spectacular steep side walls
may result if the walls do not slough in.
 Mining can be quite selective, and little waste rock is thrown on the surface dumps.
 The principal environmental objection to the method is difficulty in reclamation of the surface
of the mine area.
By Girmay k 147
By Girmay k 148
High wall mining
 is a method of mining, originated from auger mining that involves the use of a remote
controlled mining machine, which is driven into a coal seam to extract the coal.
 This method is often used to access coal left behind from previous mining operations or when
difficult geological conditions restrict the use of other mining methods.
 Coal is extracted from the base of a cliff (a high wall) using horizontal or inclined drilling to
create holes in the coal seam left in barriers of high wall of opencast mine.
 Another primary difference in a high wall mining operation is that it is carried out by remote
control at the surface, where an operator located in a cabin uses a television camera to monitor
and control the progress of the continuous miner machine.
 There are two main types of high wall mining:
 continuous high wall mining and auger mining.
By Girmay k 149
 Continuous high wall mining involves the use of a continuous mining machine that creates
rectangular openings into the coal seam of a high wall. Coal is hauled to the surface using a
conveyor system
 In Auger mining, coal is extracted using an auger mining machine. This machine operates like
a drill, with a cutter head rotating into the coal seam and creating circular holes to access the
coal. The extracted coal is returned to the surface using the auger machine and a conveyor
system.
 Auger has limitation of penetrating into the seam. It can go up to 60m, but Continuous mining
machine can go up to 600m.

By Girmay k 150
AUGER OR HIGH WAL MINING

By Girmay k 151
Terrace Mining
•Where the overburden is too thick or the floor of the pit (i.e.,The ore inclination) is too steeply
dipping}to allow waste dumping directly over the pit (as is the case with a dragline and strip
mining), it is necessary to use intermediate cyclic or continuous transport (e.g.,trucks or
conveyors) to transport the overburden to where it can be tipped back into the previously mined
void.
•It is a multi-benched sideways-moving method, the whole mine moves over the ore reserve from
one end to the other, but not necessarily in a single bench. The number of benches used is usually
a function of the excavation depth and type of machinery used (typically between 10-15m bench
height and 1-32 benches in the terrace).
•Where steeply dipping orebodies are encountered, the modified method is most often applied, a
more typical 3 waste bench terrace operation with steeply
By Girmay k dipping orebody. 152
In this case, the pit dimensions are limited by seam exposure (pit length) and available working
area (for mining and dumping faces) (pit width).
In strip mining, the dragline excavates overburden and dumps it as waste directly over the mined
out area. In deeper or more geologically complex deposits, other mining equipment such as
shovels, bucket wheel excavators, scrapers, and intermediate cyclic or continuous transport (eg.
Truck or conveyors) systems are used to transport the overburden to where it can be tipped back
into the previously mined void. Such equipment is best used where benches or terraces must be
constructed to reach a deeper or thicker, more complex coal seam.

By Girmay k 153
Terrace mining geometry and layout
If the terrain is flat and the coal seam has practically no dip, a long and narrow, rectangular
deposit can be mined in two panel with one turnaround. The trun around allow a better face length
and places the second panel’s final void close to the first panel’s box-cut stockpile. The final void
can then be completely backfilled with the box-cut material. In rectangular mine, the faces should
be advanced parallel.

By Girmay k 154
 CHAPTER four
• Quarrying:- Is the process of extraction of stone, rock and construction
materials from an open-pit or surface quarry (Dimensional stones).
A quarry is a place from which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate,
riprap, sand, gravel, or slate has been excavated from the ground.
• A quarry is the same thing as an open-pit mine from which minerals are extracted.
The only non-trivial difference between the two is that open-pit mines that
produce metal and non metals where as quarrying produces building materials and
dimension stone, which is granite and marble.
What are the type of quarries?
_ there are two type of quarries which are called
i. Quarry of unconsolidated material; sand, gravel, clay (which does not
require breaking of the material by using explosive)
ii. Quarry of hard rock material; stone quarry (producing aggregates)
and dimension stone quarry (to produce marble and granite)
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 CONT…..
• What is hard rock quarries and there classification?
 Hard rock quarry can basically be defined as those where it is not possible to
excavate the quarry with out some degree of fragmentation of rock.
 It will be achieved by drilling and blasting in most circumstances, but the
degree of weathering and fracturing of the rock mass it might be achieved by
‘ripping’ using a dozer or a combination of ripping and blasting.
• The hard rock quarries generally take one of the following two forms:
1. Open pit quarry:- where quarrying workings are generally bellow the level of
the processing plant and excavated material is hauled up and out of the pit.
2. Hill side quarry:- characterized by a general downward haulage of excavated
material from the quarry area (upslope) to the processing plant (down slope). It
may often became open pit quarries once the level of excavation has reached,
and subsequently extends bellow, theBy quarry
Girmay k
plant area. 156
 CONT…..
The choice of whether a hill side or open pit operation is
contemplated is usually dictated by
i. Geological structure
ii. The site topography
iii. Owner ship boundaries and
iv. Environmental consideration.
• What is stone quarry?
Stone quarrying is the multistage process by which rock is extracted
from the ground and crushed to produce aggregate, which is then
screened into the sizes required for immediate use, or for further
processing, such as coating with bitumen to make bituminous
macadam (bitmac) or asphalt.
The process begins with a detailed three-dimensional survey of the
quarry face. This allows the explosives engineer to design the blast
and to plot where the shot holes should be drilled so that the blast can
be carried out safely and efficiently.

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 CONT….
• The survey will show if there are any bulges or hollows in the face.
A bulge will need more explosive than normal to ensure that it is
completely fragmented and not left in place in the face. Hollow
areas require less explosive than normal.

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 CONT…
• The situation of the place where the blasting is to be done has a great
influence on the method used. Where the quarrying to be done is
adjacent to, or near buildings, highways and built-up areas the effect
of ground and air vibrations is very important and modifications
have to be made to the methods which would normally be used.
• The factors which have to be considered are as follows:
• (1) height of face
• (2) burden and spacing of holes
• (3) size of drill holes
• (4) hade of holes
• (5) sub grade drilling
• (6) pattern of holes
• (7) delay pattern
• (8) type of explosive
• (9) method of ignition
• (10) position of primer
• (11) stemming
• (12) natural cleavage or shear planes
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 CONT….

• 1. Height of Face
The height of a face being worked in a quarry is usually constant
for faces other than top face once the floor horizon of each
bench has been established , but the height of the top face is
usually variable and would increase until a certain limit is
reached.
2. Burden and Spacing of Holes
• These factors are dependent on each other. Various formulae
have been devised to calculate the burden but the one which
seems to fit the blasting of dolerite is as follows:
• (1) B = Cd where B=burden (rom)
• d=hole diameter (rom)
• C=14 to 49
• It has been established for rock having a density of 2,560 kg/m3
and
• using explosives having similar properties to AN 60 (S.G. of 1.3
and V 3,660m/s) that a value of 30 for C is a reasonable mean to
adopt. Should the rock have a different density then a further
factor can be introduced namely:
By Girmay k 160
 CONT…..

• 2) x=(2560/W)1/3
where W = mass of 1 m3 of the rock (kg)

• Combining (1) and (2) gives an empirical formula for the

calculation of the burden.

• B=(2560/W)1/3 cd
• where B=burden (mm)
W=density (kg/m 3)
C=30
• d=hole diameter (mm)
• 3. Size of Drill Hole
• The diameter of the drill depends to a large extent on the
quantity of explosives that is required in each hole to blast
down the face which in turn is dependent upon the spacing ,
burden and the amount of explosive needed to fragment the
rock to the size required by the operator.
By Girmay k 161
 CONT…..

• 4. Hade of Hole
• The angle of hade is 20-30°, mainly 20°.
• The purpose o f the hade is to:
I. Decrease the danger due to loose rock on the face
II. Enable a bigger proportion of the explosive energy to be used
in fragmenting and moving rock from the face
III. Give the face a smoother appearance
IV. Decrease the need for sub grade drilling, and
V. Ensure greater fragmentation.
• 5. Sub grade Drilling
• Sub grade drilling is the drilling of that part of the hole below the
level of the floor (fig.), it is necessary particularly for vertical holes
and where the rock is homogeneous, to ensure that humps and toes
are not left along the face which create bad loading conditions and
make the face difficult to blast.
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 CONT….

An empirical formula used to establish the amount of sub grade

drilling for vertical holes is as follows:
J = 0.3 B where J is in meter
B burden (m)

By Girmay k 163
 CONT…..

• 6. Pattern of Holes
• When large blasts or frequent blasting is to take place it is good
mining practice to layout the positions of the holes in straight lines
and each row behind parallel to the one near the face. This will result
in improved contours and safer working conditions.
7. Delay Pattern
• The pattern of delays is influenced by the requirements of the quarry
operators or blasting engineer.
• Factors which affect the delay pattern are as follows:
1. Position where broken material is required on quarry floor
2. Shear planes or planes of weakness in face
3. Fragmentation of rock
4. The proximity of any buildings etc. which can be affected by air or
ground vibrations from the blast
5. People residing in the immediate vicinity

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 CONT….

• . Type of Explosive
• The brittleness or softness of a rock dictates the strength of the
explosive to be used. When the material being shot is similar to
a siltstone or mudstone a slow heaving explosive is required
whereas for a hard rock such as dolerite a high velocity
explosive is necessary to ensure that the rock is shattered.
9. Method of Ignition
• There are three normal methods of ignition of the blast using
the following:
(1) Safety fuse and #6 detonator with or without igniter cord
(2) Electric detonators
(a) Millisecond delays
(b)1/2 second delay
(e) Instantaneous
(3) Cord tex which can be initiated by any of the methods in
(1) or (2). By Girmay k 165
 CONT…

• 10. Position of Primer

• When using a safety fuse and safety detonator the primer is
inserted at the top of the charge and this is called top priming.
• Electric detonators permit either top or bottom priming and in
some cases it may be expedient to use primers inserted within
the charge. It is preferable to bottom prime as the shot firer can
then be sure that no explosive is left in the bottom of the hole.

11. Stemming
• Many materials can be used as stemming. The most commonly
used, in descending order of preference, are as follows:
(1) water (4) metal dust
(2) dry sand (5) loam
(3) moist sand (6) Clay
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 CONT……

• 12. Natural Cleavage or Shear Planes

• This is a factor which should be used by the quarry

operator or blasting engineer to give the best results from
the blast. The blast pattern should be modified to suit the
natural planes of weakness.
•

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 CONT…

• Which type of product can be gained from the quarry?

• A stone quarry typically produces the following products:
• • Large size blocks blasted from the quarry face, from approximately 0.5 m3
(approximately 0.36 tonne weight) to 1.25 m3 (approximately 5-6 tonne weight),
are called rip rap or rock armour and are used in coastal and river flood defense
schemes to shore up sea fronts and river banks.

• • Screened out fine material from the secondary crusher is called blinding.
Some screens have multiple decks and can screen out several grades of blinding.
As with crusher run, blinding materials contain a mix of sizes, from the
maximum size that the screen mesh can pass, down to dust. Blinding, because it
is finer than crusher run, is used for final shaping up of construction sub bases,
particularly in road construction, where the sub base is the last unbound layer
before coated materials are laid.

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 CONT….

• What is dimension stone quarrying and its

method of extraction?
A variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks
are used as structural and decorative dimension stone.
These rock types are more commonly known as granite,
limestone, marble, travertine, quartz-based stone
(sandstone, quartzite) and slate. Other varieties of
dimension stone that are normally considered to be special
minor types include alabaster (massive gypsum),
soapstone (massive talc), serpentine and various products
fashioned from natural stone.
The large majority of dimension stone quarry are now
conducted according to regular bench design using a
proper combination of cutting technologies suggested by
peculiarities of each situation.
By Girmay k 169
 CONT….

• What are the two major approaches to open pit

development?

1. Open pit quarry method 1

Benches are worked successively, such that the entire excavated area
is disturbed through out the operation.
Overburden, soil, quarry waste and any material that can’t be sold
directly must be stored out side the excavation limit for which storage
space is required.
Method is suitable for bulk minerals where there is plenty of out of
pit tipping space for overburden, soil, waste and stock storage, or in
small sites where method 2 is impractical.

By Girmay k 170
 CONT….

• 2. Open pit quarry -method 2

A void is created to full depth of the deposit (1) and then full face are advanced (2) then (3) at
multiple bench level.
This method allows progressive replacement of overburden and soil in low level restoration or
backfilling with landfill as soon as the faces have advanced sufficiently to create space for this
to happen.
The overburden, soil, and quarry waste from the initial void (1) must be stored out side the
excavation limit, but the space required will generally be smaller than for method 1

• The choice of quarrying method depends on the kind of material, the shape and size of the
geologic formation, the location of the quarry, the production level and the imposed
restriction.

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 Chapter five
5) Aqueous Extraction Methods
 Depend on water or another liquid (e.g., dilute sulfuric acid, weak cyanide solution, or
ammonium carbonate) to extract the mineral.
 Placer mining:
 Hydraulic mining
 Dredgingmining
 In-situ leaching(ISL)/Solution mining
 Undersea Mining
 Placer and solution mining are among the most economical of all mining methods but can only
be applied to limited categories of mineral deposits.
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Placer mining
 Placer deposits are concentrations of heavy minerals, usually within loose alluvium that can
easily be excavated and washed.
 Placer minerals such as gold, tin, and tungsten minerals, are of relatively high value, but the
value of the placer gravel itself may be very low, often less than a dollar per cubic yard.
 For deposits of such low grade to be worked they must be near water, on or near the surface of
the ground, and should be only loosely consolidated so that drilling and blasting are not
necessary.
 Placer mining affects large surface areas for the volume of material mined, is highly visible and
has serious environmental problems with surface disturbance and stream pollution.
 Placer mining is used to exploit loosely consolidated deposits like common sand and gravel
or gravels containing gold, tin, diamonds, platinum, titanium,or gems.
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There are two types of placer mining:-
A)Hydraulic mining: Generally used for weakly cemented near surface ore deposits. Hydraulic
mining of a placer gold deposit .Hydraulic king utilizes high-pressure stream of water that is
directed against the mineral deposit(normally but not always a placer),under cutting it,and causing
its removal by the erosive actions of the water.
B)Dredging mining: Generally used most often for mineral-sands and some near-shore alluvial
diamond mining operations.
Dredging performed from floating vessels, accomplishes the extraction of the minerals
mechanically or hydraulically.
"Dredging "is a method often used to bring up under water mineral deposits. Although dredging is
usually employed to clear or enlarge water ways for boats, it canals ore cover significant amounts
By Girmay k 174
of under water minerals relatively efficiently and cheaply.
i) Hydraulic Mining (or Hydraulic king)

 Hydraulic Mining involves directing a high-pressure stream of water, via a MONITOR or

nozzle, against the base of the placer bank.
 The water caves the bank, disintegrates the ground and washes the material to and through
sluice boxes, and / or jigs, and / or tables situated down-slope.
 Hydraulic mining totally disturbs large areas and puts much debris into the drainage system.

 By Girmay k 175
ii) Dredging
 Large alluvial deposits are mined by floating washing plants capable of excavating the gravel,
processing it in the washing plant, and stacking the tailings away from the dredge pond.
 A Dredge floats in water and digs the gravel by an endless string of buckets. Coarse material is
screened out and dumped out the back. The fine material passes into a series of sluices where
the gold in recovered.
 Several types of excavation methods are in use: DRAGLINE and BACKHOE PLANTS.
 Dragline use in placer mining with washing plants is limited to shallow digging depths. Its
bucket is less controllable on the bottom than the backhoe, and it is less able to dig into the
bottom to clean up all the ore that may be there. However, it has the advantage of a longer
reach.
 The digging reach of the backhoe extends toBy as much as 70 feet below the surface. It has
Girmay k 176
the
Types of Excavation Methods Using Dredging:
i) Bucket Wheel Hydraulic Dredges are becoming more popular for underwater excavation,
except where a high content of soft clay exists or where excessive oversize material occurs. It
is dependent upon flooded pump openings that convey the material mined to the washing
plant, and therefore it cannot work above water level. Placement of the pump suction is
critical. By Girmay k 177
ii) Bucket lineDredges are capable of continuous excavation and are very efficient. They mine,
process, and discard tailings to waste in one continuous stream. However, no storage
opportunities exist, and the stream moves through the system by the force of gravity. Buckets,
supported by a LADDER, dig the mine face. Material moves up the ladder and dumps into a
hopper that feeds the washing plant. They are capable of high excavation rates.
iii) Suction Cutter Dredges are similar to the Bucket Wheet Dredge except the digging device
consists of a series of cutting arms rotating in a basket about a suction intake. The rotating arms
break up the bank material, slurrying it so it can be drawn into the dredge suction. It has proven
to be successful in mining unconsolidated beach sands and offshore placers.

By Girmay k 178
 Solution Mining

 Used most commonly on evaporite (e.g. salt and potash) and sediment-hosted uranium
deposits, and also to a far lesser extent to recover copper from low-grade oxidized ore.
 The dissolving solution is pumped into the ore body from a series of injection wells, and is
then pumped out, together with salts dissolved from the ore body from a series of extraction
(production) wells.
 Solution mining (in-situ recovery) = resources in a deep deposit are dissolved in a liquid and
siphoned out. E.g Salts, lithium, boron, bromine, potash, copper, uranium.
 Less environmental impact than other methods:
 Less surface area is disturbed.
 Acids, heavy metals, uranium can accidentally leak.

By Girmay k 179
Hot water

By Girmay k 180
Solution mining includes both borehole mining, such as the methods used to extract
sodium chloride or sulfur, and leaching, either through drill holes or in dumps or
heaps on the surface.
Advantages:
 No solid wastes.
 Liquid wastes (low concentration brines with no market value) can be re-injected
into the stratum being leached. Also reported that wastes are sometimes injected
into a separate acquifer.

By Girmay k 181
Problems:
 Little control of the solution underground and difficulty in ensuring the process solutions do
not migrate away from the immediate area of leaching.
 Main impact of evaporite ISL is derived from surface or shallow ground water contamination
in the vicinity of evaporation ponds. Pregnant solutions can be highly corrosive and pyhto-
toxic, and can react with the soil materials used in pond construction, and may migrate to
surrounding areas through seepage, overflow (both bad practice),and wind blown spray.
 Surface subsidence and the development of sink-holes may also occur after prolonged solution
mining if inadequate un-mined material is left to support the overburden (bad practice)

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 CHAPTER SIX
• ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SURFACE MINING

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OK

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By Girmay k 185