Keywords

• Nucleolus – an area within the nucleus

responsible for RNA synthesis
• Homologous chromosomes – pairs of matching
chromosomes, each chromosome in the pair
contains the same genes but different alleles.
• Differentiation: is the process of a cell becoming
specialised for a particular function. Even though
cells can be differentiated in structure and
function they still all contain the same DNA,
differentiation is the expression of some gene’s
but not others in a cell’s genome.
2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular
organisation
 The cell cycle
• The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events that takes place in a cell, resulting in the
division of the cell and the formation of 2 genetically identical daughter cells.
• 2 main phases of cell division: interphase and mitotic (division) phase.
A cell spends most of its time at interphase, cells do not actively divide here, instead the
cell is producing things like enzymes and hormones. The 3 stages of interphase:
1. G1- the first growth phase: protein synthesis occurs (the proteins from which
organelles are made) and organelles then replicate causing the cell to increase in size
2. S – synthesis phase: DNA is replicated in the nucleus
3. G2 – the second growth phase: the cell continues to increase in size, mitochondria
grows and duplicates and the duplicated DNA is checked for errors.
Mitotic phase is the period of cell division it has 2 stages: mitosis (the nucleus divides) and
cytokinesis (the cytoplasm divides and 2 cells are produced)

This all leads to cells that are genetically

identical as during interphase the DNA is
replicated then mitosis divides the
nucleus ensuring that that each daughter
cell will have the same copy of DNA and
no. of chromosomes as the parent cell.
2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular
organisation
 How the cell cycle is regulated
The cell cycle is regulated by checkpoints – they monitor and verify whether
the processes at each phase of the cell cycle have been accurately completed
before the cell is allowed to go on to the next phase. The 3 checkpoints:

1. G1 checkpoint: happens at the end of G1 phase before entry into S

phase. It is checked for cell size, nutrients, DNA damage, growth factors.
If it satisfies these it can pass onto S phase.
2. G2 checkpoint: happens at the end of G2 phase and the cell is checked
for: cell size, DNA replication, DNA damage (whether there are
replication errors). If it passes the cell goes onto the mitotic phase
3. Metaphase checkpoint: this is the point where chromosome attachment
to spindle is checked. If they have attached and aligned than mitosis can
proceed.

*if the cell does not pass the checkpoint it goes to G0 (resting stage) – so the
cell leaves the cycle either temporarily or permanently *

2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular

organisation
The significance of mitosis in life cycles
Mitosis is needed for:
• the growth of multicellular organisms
• to repair damaged tissue
• some animals, plants and fungi use it to
reproduce asexually.

2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular

organisation
 The significance of meiosis in life
cycles
Meiosis is significant as:
• It produces haploid cells which produces gametes allowing for
sexual reproduction
• All the cells produced are genetically different due to:
1. Crossing over of chromatids: during prophase 1 homologous pairs
of chromosomes come together and pair up the chromatids twist
around each other and swap over so now the chromatids will still
contain the same genes but they will have a different combination
of alleles.
2. When the chromosomes line up in metaphase 1 and separate in
anaphase 1 it is completely random so the 4 daughter cells
produced by meiosis have completely different combinations of
paternal and maternal chromosomes.
3. Metaphase 2 produces more genetic variation as there is
independent assortment as the chromatids are no longer identical
as they were in metaphase 1.
2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular
organisation
 How cells of multicellular organisms are specialised for particular functions
Specialised cells How are they specialised for particular functions

Erythrocytes (red Have a flattened biconcave - increases their surface area to volume ratio. Essential for their role in
blood cells) transporting oxygen around the body. In mammals these cells do not many other organelles increasing the
space available for haemoglobin. Are flexible allowing them to squeeze through narrow capillaries.

Neutrophils (a type of Have a big role in the immune system. They have a multi-lobed nucleus making it easier for them to squeeze
white blood cell) through small gaps to get to the site of infections. The granular cytoplasm contains many lysosomes that
contain enzymes used to attack pathogens.

Squamous Made up of specialised squamous epithelial cells. It is very thin due to the flat cells that make it up and also
because it is only 1 cell thick. It is present when rapid diffusion across a surface is essential. Forms the lining
of the lungs and allows oxygen to diffuse into the blood.

Ciliated epithelial cells Made up of ciliated epithelial cells. The cells have hair like structures called cilia on one side of their surface,
and these move in a rhythmic manner. Ex: they line the trachea sweeping mucus away from the lungs. They
also contain goblet cells which release mucus to trap any unwanted particles in the air.

Sperm cells (male Function: deliver genetic information to female gamete. They have a tail which allows them to move, contain
gamete) many mitochondria giving them the energy to swim. The acrosome on its head contains digestive enzymes
which are released to digest the membrane around the ovum so the sperm can penetrate = fertilisation.

Palisade cells Present in the mesophyll. Contain chloroplasts which can move to absorb maximum light for photosynthesis.
The cells are rectangular shape allowing them to be closely packed to form a continuous layer. Have thin cell
walls increasing the rate of diffusion of CO2. Have a large vacuole to maintain turgor pressure.

Root hair cells Present at the surface of roots near the growing tips. Have long extensions called root hairs which increase
the surface area of the cell. This maximises the uptake of water and minerals from the soil.
Guard cells Pairs of guard cells on leaf surface form openings called stomata. Allow CO2 to enter to be used in
photosynthesis. When guard cells lose water and become less swollen they change shape and the stomata
closes to prevent any more water lose from the plant. The cell wall of a guard cell is thicker on one side so
2.1.6not
that that the cell does Cellchange
division, cell diversityas
symmetrically anditscellular
volume changes.
organisation
 The organisation of cells into tissues
4 main categories of tissues in animals:
• Nervous tissue – supports transmission of electrical
impulses
• Epithelial tissue – covers body surfaces (internal and
external) EX: squamous and ciliated epithelia
• Muscle tissue – contracts EX: muscle
• Connective tissue – holds other tissues together also a
transport medium EX: cartilage

2 tissues in plants:
• Epidermis tissue – covers plant surfaces
• Vascular tissue – transports water and nutrients EX: xylem
and phloem
2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular
organisation
 The organisation of cells into organs
and organ systems
• An organ is a collection of tissues that is adapted to
carry out a particular function in an organism.
Ex: a leaf is a plant organ adapted for photosynthesis as it
contains epidermis tissue and vascular tissue.
• Large multicellular organisms have coordinated organ
systems, each one is composed of a number of organs
working together to carry out a major function in the
body.
Ex: the cardiovascular system – moves blood around the
body to provide a transport system for the substances
blood carries.
2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular
organisation
 The features and differentiation of stem cells
• Stem cells are undifferentiated cells which is how all cells begin. They then have
the potential to differentiate (this is called potency). The greater the number of
cell types a stem cell can differentiate into the greater it’s potency.
• Stem cells can undergo cell division many times and are a source of growth as well
as a renewing source of undifferentiated cells.
• When stem cells become specialised they can’t divide they’ve entered G0.
• Activity of stem cell must be controlled to avoid deficiency but also avoid
overproduction as tumours can form like this.

3 types of stem cell:

• Totipotent – can differentiate into any type of cell (ex: zygotes are totipotent)
these are destined to eventually produce a whole organism, or into extra-
embryonic tissues (ex: umbilicus)
• Pluripotent – can form all tissue types but not whole organisms. Are present in
early embryos and are the origin of the different types of tissue in organisms.
• Multipotent: can only form a range of cells within a certain type of tissue

Differentiation: when this process occurs the cell becomes adapted to its specific role.
This can lead to the cell changing shape, this is dependent on the function of the
tissue, organ and organ systems to which the cell belongs.
2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular
organisation
The production of erythrocytes and neutrophils
derived from stem cells in bone marrow
• Erythrocytes (blood cells) last on average up to
120 days. The stem cells in bone marrow are
constantly producing more to replace them. They
produce about 3 billion blood cells per kg of body
mass per day.
• Neutrophils (white blood cells) last up to 6 hours
and are also produced by stem cells in bone
marrow. They produce around 1.6 billion per kg
per hour. This number rises during infection.
2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular
organisation
 The production of xylem vessels and phloem
sieve tubes from meristems
• In plants stem cells are present in meristems, this
tissue is found wherever there is growing in a
plant (ex: tips of roots).
• It is also found between the phloem and xylem
tissues and this is called the vascular cambium.
Cells from this region differentiate into the
different cells present in xylem and phloem
tissues. This allows the vascular tissue to grow as
the plant grows. The stem cells in the meristems
remains pluripotent throughout the life of the
plant.
2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular
organisation
The potential uses of stem cells in research
and medicine.
• The repair of damaged tissues: stem cells can grow on
biodegradable meshes to produce new skin for burn
victims. This is quicker than the normal process of taking a
graft from another part of the body.
• Alzheimer’s disease – brain cells are destroyed due to the
build up of abnormal proteins. Current drugs only alleviate
symptoms.
• Parkinson’s disease – symptoms are caused by the death of
dopamine-producing cells in the brain. Current drugs just
delay the process of the disease.
• Developmental biology – this is the study of the changes
that occur as multicellular organisms grow and develop
from a single cell and why this sometimes goes wrong. Due
to their ability to divide infinitely and differentiate into any
cell, stem cells have become important in developmental
biology. 2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular
organisation