Blood Vessels and Circulation

Chapter 13
Pgs 389-403
 Overview
• Introduction • Cardiovascular
• The Anatomy of Blood Regulation
Vessels – The autoregulation of blood
flow
– Structure of vessel walls
– The neural control of blood
– Arteries
pressure and flow
– Capillaries
– Hormones and
– Veins cardiovascular regulation
• Cardiovascular
Physiology
– Pressure
– Resistance
– Circulatory pressure
Capillary Bed
 Circulatory Physiology
• 2 factors affect blood flow through
capillaries:
– Pressure
– Resistance
• Vascular resistance
• Viscosity
• Turbulence
 Pressure
• Hydrostatic pressure
• Circulatory pressure
– Overall pressure difference between base of
aorta and entrance to RA
• Avg is 100 mm Hg
– Needed to force blood along
– Divided into 3 components
• Arterial pressure = blood pressure
• Capillary pressure = pressure in caps
• Venous pressure = pressure in veins
 Resistance
• For blood to flow:
– Circulatory pressure must be great enough to
overcome total peripheral resistance
• But pressure low in veins so focus on arterial system (called
peripheral resistance)
• Neural and hormonal controls
• Sources of peripheral resistance:
– Vascular resistance
– Viscosity
– Turbulence
 Vascular Resistance
• Resistance of the blood vessels
• Most important factor is friction between
the blood and the vessel walls
– Friction depends on:
• Length
• Diameter
The Heart
 Overview
• Introduction
• The Heart and The Circulation System
• The Heartbeat
– Contractile cells
– The conducting system
– The cardiac cycle
• Heart Dynamics
– Factors controlling cardiac output
 The Heartbeat
• Atria and ventricles contract in coordinated
manner
– Ensures correct blood flow
• 2 types of cardiac muscle cells involved:
– Contractile cells
• Produce powerful contractions that propel blood
– Conducting system
• Control and coordinate activity of contractile cells
 The Heartbeat: Contractile
Cells
• Differs from skeletal muscle:
– Action potential
– Source of calcium ions
– Duration of resulting contraction
 Cardiac vs. Skeletal Muscle
Contraction
Cardiac Skeletal
Muscle Muscle
Duration: 250-300 Duration: 10 msec
Action msec
Potential
Delay repolarization & Initiate contraction
Extracellular initiate contraction
Calcium Ions
Long refractory period Tetanus occurs
Type of which continues while because short
contraction relaxing = no tetanus! refractory period
 The Conducting System
• Cardiac muscle tissue contracts on its own
– Does not need hormonal or neural stimulation
• These will change the force
– Called automaticity or autorhythmicity
• Atria contract followed by ventricles
– Coordinated by conducting system
• Network of specialized cardiac muscle cells
– Initiate and distribute electrical impulses
– Made up of two types of cells that do not contract:
» Nodal cells (responsible for establishing rate of
contraction)
» Conducting cells (distribute the contractile stimulus to
general myocardium)
 Nodal Cells
• Cell membranes depolarize spontaneously
and generate APs at regular intervals
• Electrically coupled to each other,
conducting cells, and other cardiac cells
• Normal rate of contraction established by
pacemaker cells
– Located in the SA (sinoatrial) node
– Depolarize rapidly and spontaneously
– Generate 70-80 APs/min = HR of 70-80 bpm
 Conducting Cells
• Stimulus for contraction generated by SA
node, but must be distributed so that:
– The atria contract together before the
ventricles
– The ventricles contract together
• Wave must begin at apex and spread toward base
– This pushes blood toward base into the aorta
and pulmonary trunk
• Now we will watch the CD!
 The Cardiac Cycle
• Cardiac cycle: period between the start of
one heartbeat and the beginning to the
next
• Systole: contraction
• Diastole: relaxation
• Remember: Fluids move from high
pressure to low pressure!
• Now we will watch the CD!
 Heart Dynamics
• Refers to the movements and forces generated
during cardiac contractions
• Each time the heart beats the 2 ventricles
release = amounts of blood
• Stroke Volume (SV)—the amount of blood
ejected by a ventricle during a single beat
– Can vary from beat to beat
• Cardiac Output (CO)—the amount of blood
pumped by each ventricle in 1 min
• CO = SV x HR
• ml/min = ml x bpm
Factors Controlling Cardiac Output
• Highly regulated
– Why?
• Major factors:
– Blood volume reflexes
– Autonomic innervation
– Hormones
• Secondary factors:
– Extracellular ion concentration
– Body temperature
 Blood Volume Reflexes
• Contraction active, relaxation passive
• 2 heart reflexes respond to changes in
blood vol
– One occurs in R atrium and affects HR
• Atrial reflex
– One occurs in the ventricles and affects SV
 Atrial Reflex
• Involves adjustments in HR
– Triggered by increase in venous return
• Walls of RA stretch  stimulate stretch receptors
in wall  increase in sympathetic activity  cells
of SA node depolarize faster  increase HR
 Ventricular Reflex
• Amount of blood pumped out of each
ventricle each beat depends on:
– Venous return
– Filling time
• Frank-Starling principle
– Major effect is that the output of blood from
both ventricles is balanced under a variety of
conditions
Factors Controlling CO: Autonomic
Innervation
• ANS can modify HR
– Innervated by both parasympathetic and
sympathetic divisions
• Innervate SA and AV nodes
 Factors Affecting CO: Hormones
• Adrenal medulla
– NE and E
– Result?
• Thyroid hormones and glucagon
– Secreted by pancreas
– Produce similar effects to NE and E
Coordination of Autonomic Activity
• Cardiac centers in medulla
– Cardioacceleratory center
• Which neurons are activated?
– Cardioinhibitory center
• Which neurons are activated?
• Gets from heart to medulla through vagus nerve
• Both respond to changes in bp and arterial
concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide
– Monitored by baroreceptors
 Viscosity
• Resistance to flow caused by interactions
among molecules and suspended
materials in a liquid
• Viscosity of blood 5xs that of water
• Remains constant
 Turbulence
• Blood flow smooth
– Slowest flow near the walls; fastest at the
center
• High flow rates, irregular surface, sudden
changes in vessel diameter = turbulent
flow (swirls and eddies created)
• Slows the flow, increases resistance
 Circulatory Pressure
• Where would you expect to find pressure
the:
– Highest?
– Lowest?
• Arterial blood pressure
– Systolic pressure
– Diastolic pressure
– Pulse pressure
 Capillary Pressures
• Unlike other arteries because capillary
walls permeable
– Most reabsorbed
– Some water and solutes enter lymphatic
vessels
• This continuous movement plays
important role in maintaining homeostasis
 Capillary Exchange
• 4 important functions
– Maintain constant communication between plasma
and ISF
– Speeds the distribution of nutrients, hormones, and
dissolved gases throughout tissues
– Assists the movement of insoluble lipids and tissue
proteins that are impermeable
– Flushes bacterial toxins and other chemical stimuli to
lymphoid tissue and organs that provide immunity
from disease
 Venous Pressure
• Veins become larger
– Drops resistance, increases flow rate
• 2 factors overcome gravity
– Muscular compression
– Respiratory pump
 Cardiovascular Regulation
• Tissue perfusion—tissue blood flow
• Homeostatic mechanisms regulate
cardiovascular activity to ensure tissue perfusion
meets demand for oxygen and nutrients
• 3 variable factors that influence tissue perfusion:
– Cardiac output
– Peripheral resistance
– Blood pressure
 Cardiovascular Regulation
• Cells become active = increased circulation to region
• Goal of cardiovascular regulation is to ensure that these
blood flow changes occur:
– At an appropriate time
– In the right area
– Without drastically altering blood pressure and blood flow to vital
organs
• Factors involved in regulation of cardiovascular function
include:
– Local factors
– Neural mechanisms
– Endocrine factors
 Autoregulation of Blood Flow
• Precapillary sphincter
– Respond automatically to alterations in local
environment
• Increased or decreased levels of oxygen and/or
carbon dioxide
– Dilation caused by vasodilators
– Contraction caused by vasoconstrictors
 Neural Control of Blood Pressure
(BP) and Blood Flow (BF)
• Cardiovascular (CV) centers in medulla responsible
– Includes a cardioaccelerator center and cardioinhibitory center
• Vasomotor center (part of CV)
– Primarily controls diameters of arterioles
– Inhibition of center leads to vasodilation
• Will this increase or decrease peripheral resistance?
– Stimulation of center leads to vasoconstriction
• CV centers detect changes in tissue by monitoring:
– Arterial blood (esp bp)
– pH
– Dissolved gas concentrations
 Baroreceptor Reflexes
• Monitor degree of stretch in walls of expandable
organs
• Located in:
– Carotid sinuses
– Aortic sinuses
– Wall of RA
• Initiate baroreceptor reflexes
– Autonomic reflexes that adjust CO and peripheral
resistance to maintain normal arterial pressures
 Chemoreceptor Reflexes
• Respond to changes in carbon dioxide
levels, oxygen levels, or pH in blood and
CSF
• Found in:
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
– Medulla (CSF)
 Hormones and Cardiovascular
Regulation
• Provides both short term and long term
regulation
• E and NE immediately stimulate CO and
peripheral vasoconstriction
• ADH, angiotensin II, EPO, and ANP
– Affect long term regulation of blood volume
 Overview
• Introduction
• The Heart and The Circulation System
• The Heartbeat
– Contractile cells
– The conducting system
– The cardiac cycle
• Heart Dynamics
– Factors controlling cardiac output
 The Heartbeat
• Atria and ventricles contract in coordinated
manner
– Ensures correct blood flow
• 2 types of cardiac muscle cells involved:
– Contractile cells
• Produce powerful contractions that propel blood
– Conducting system
• Control and coordinate activity of contractile cells
 The Heartbeat: Contractile
Cells
• Differs from skeletal muscle:
– Action potential
– Source of calcium ions
– Duration of resulting contraction
 Cardiac vs. Skeletal Muscle
Contraction
Cardiac Skeletal
Muscle Muscle
Duration: 250-300 Duration: 10 msec
Action msec
Potential
Delay repolarization & Initiate contraction
Extracellular initiate contraction
Calcium Ions
Long refractory period Tetanus occurs
Type of which continues while because short
contraction relaxing = no tetanus! refractory period
 The Conducting System
• Cardiac muscle tissue contracts on its own
– Does not need hormonal or neural stimulation
• These will change the force
– Called automaticity or autorhythmicity
• Atria contract followed by ventricles
– Coordinated by conducting system
• Network of specialized cardiac muscle cells
– Initiate and distribute electrical impulses
– Made up of two types of cells that do not contract:
» Nodal cells (responsible for establishing rate of
contraction)
» Conducting cells (distribute the contractile stimulus to
general myocardium)
 Nodal Cells
• Cell membranes depolarize spontaneously
and generate APs at regular intervals
• Electrically coupled to each other,
conducting cells, and other cardiac cells
• Normal rate of contraction established by
pacemaker cells
– Located in the SA (sinoatrial) node
– Depolarize rapidly and spontaneously
– Generate 70-80 APs/min = HR of 70-80 bpm
 Conducting Cells
• Stimulus for contraction generated by SA
node, but must be distributed so that:
– The atria contract together before the
ventricles
– The ventricles contract together
• Wave must begin at apex and spread toward base
– This pushes blood toward base into the aorta
and pulmonary trunk
• Now we will watch the CD!
 The Cardiac Cycle
• Cardiac cycle: period between the start of
one heartbeat and the beginning to the
next
• Systole: contraction
• Diastole: relaxation
• Remember: Fluids move from high
pressure to low pressure!
• Now we will watch the CD!
 Heart Dynamics
• Refers to the movements and forces generated
during cardiac contractions
• Each time the heart beats the 2 ventricles
release = amounts of blood
• Stroke Volume (SV)—the amount of blood
ejected by a ventricle during a single beat
– Can vary from beat to beat
• Cardiac Output (CO)—the amount of blood
pumped by each ventricle in 1 min
• CO = SV x HR
• ml/min = ml x bpm
Factors Controlling Cardiac Output
• Highly regulated
– Why?
• Major factors:
– Blood volume reflexes
– Autonomic innervation
– Hormones
• Secondary factors:
– Extracellular ion concentration
– Body temperature
 Blood Volume Reflexes
• Contraction active, relaxation passive
• 2 heart reflexes respond to changes in
blood vol
– One occurs in R atrium and affects HR
• Atrial reflex
– One occurs in the ventricles and affects SV
 Atrial Reflex
• Involves adjustments in HR
– Triggered by increase in venous return
• Walls of RA stretch  stimulate stretch receptors
in wall  increase in sympathetic activity  cells
of SA node depolarize faster  increase HR
 Ventricular Reflex
• Amount of blood pumped out of each
ventricle each beat depends on:
– Venous return
– Filling time
• Frank-Starling principle
– Major effect is that the output of blood from
both ventricles is balanced under a variety of
conditions
Factors Controlling CO: Autonomic
Innervation
• ANS can modify HR
– Innervated by both parasympathetic and
sympathetic divisions
• Innervate SA and AV nodes
 Factors Affecting CO: Hormones
• Adrenal medulla
– NE and E
– Result?
• Thyroid hormones and glucagon
– Secreted by pancreas
– Produce similar effects to NE and E
Coordination of Autonomic Activity
• Cardiac centers in medulla
– Cardioacceleratory center
• Which neurons are activated?
– Cardioinhibitory center
• Which neurons are activated?
• Gets from heart to medulla through vagus nerve
• Both respond to changes in bp and arterial
concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide
– Monitored by baroreceptors