Sampling and Sampling

Distributions
Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling

• Population:
 the totality of all subjects having certain
common characteristics that are being
studied.
 the entire group under study as defined by
research objectives. Sometimes called the
“universe.”
Researchers define populations in specific
terms such as heads of households, individual
person types, families, types of retail outlets,
etc. Population geographic location and time
of study are also considered.
Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling

The target population is the population that is the

ideal one for meeting a survey’s measurement
objective. (For example, all commercial sex
workers in a city.)

The survey population is the target population

modified to take into account practical
considerations (For example, all commercial sex
workers in a city over the age of 15, excluding
those who are home-based.)
Sample: a subset of the population that should
represent the entire group
Cont…
Samples and Populations

Population (N) Sample (n)

Definitions of Some Basic Terms
Sampling:
 is a statistical process in which one can select and examine sample
units
 is the process of selecting a small number of elements from a larger
defined target group of elements
Sample unit: the basic level of investigation…consumers,
store managers, shelf-facings, teens, etc. The research
objective should define the sample unit
Census: an accounting of the complete population
Sample Design: methods of sampling (probability or non
probability)
Parameter: characteristic of the population
Statistic: characteristic of a sample
Definitions of Some Basic Terms

• Sample frame: a master list of the

population (total or partial) from which the
sample will be drawn.
A list of population elements (people,
companies, houses, cities, etc.) from which
units to be sampled can be selected.
• Sampling error: any error that occurs in a
survey because a sample is used (random
error)
Sampling and non-sampling Errors
• Sampling error: the difference between a sample statistic
and its population parameter.
 Random sampling allows us to estimate the typical size of
the sampling error.
• Non-sampling error: comes from other sources, can be
systematically biased, and is difficult to estimate.
 Examples of nonsampling error include undercoverage,
nonresponse, question wording (e.g., response bias),
question order.
Errors in a Survey
1. Sampling error: random error introduced due to
errors in selection of a sample.
They cannot be avoided or totally eliminated.
It occurs by chance.
Increasing the sample size can minimize random error.
As the size of n ~ N,
sampling ~ error=0

9
Errors in a Survey cont’d…
2. Non-sampling error (Bias)
 It could be introduced during:
measurement or counting (i.e. observational error).
Respondent or non-respondent error.
Lack of preciseness of definition.
Errors in editing and tabulation of data, and
selection bias (e.g. accessibility bias, volunteer bias,
etc).
 It is a systematic error that cannot be avoided or
minimized by increasing the sample.

10
Types of Data Collection
a) Census: an investigation method that covers
every individual unit or element in the population
being studied
According to UN definition, population and housing
census is characterized by four essential features:
 Individual enumeration of all units
 Universality within a defined territory
 Simultaneity to express population with reference
to point of time.
 Defined periodicity to assess changes to population
 Cont…

b) Sample Survey: Sample survey is a process

that deals with sample size determination
and selection of elements and then involves
an investigation of a selected sample to
provide quantitative and qualitative data that
would enable us to estimate the
characteristic of the population.
 Reasons for Taking a Sample
• Practical considerations such as cost
and population size
• Inability of researcher to analyze
large quantities of data potentially
generated by a census
• Samples can produce sound results if
proper rules are followed for the
draw
 Advantages of Sample Survey
 Sample Survey saves money
 Sample Survey saves labor
 Sample survey saves time
 Sample Survey provides higher levers of accuracy
 Sample survey could be the only option for the study
in some specialized areas
 Other practical advantages of sample survey
 Advantages of Census
 can provide information for lowest
administrative units
 more efficient in providing information
on rare event
 better responses can be obtained
 there is no problem of sampling error
Sample vs.
Answer the Census
following terms

Conditions Favoring the Use of

Type of Study Sample Census

1. Budget ? ?

2. Time available ? ?

3. Variance in the characteristic ? ?

4. Cost of sampling errors ? ?

5. Cost of nonsampling errors ? ?

6. Attention to individual cases ? ?

Sample
Answers vs. Census

Conditions Favoring the Use of

Type of Study Sample Census

1. Budget Small Large

2. Time available Short Long

3. Variance in the characteristic Small Large

4. Cost of sampling errors Low High

5. Cost of nonsampling errors High Low

6. Attention to individual cases Yes No

Basic Sampling Classifications

Probability Nonprobability
sampling sampling
Basic Sampling Classifications
• Probability samples: ones in
which members of the population
have a known chance
(probability) of being selected
• Non-probability samples:
instances in which the chances
(probability) of selecting
members from the population
are unknown
Classification of Sampling Techniques

Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Other Sampling

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Techniques
Types of Sampling Methods
Probability Non probability
Simple random Convenience
sampling sampling
Systematic random Judgment
sampling sampling
Stratified random Quota sampling
sampling Snowball
Cluster sampling sampling
 Probability Sampling

 A probability sample is one in which each element of the

population has a known non-zero probability of
selection.
 Not a probability sample of some elements of population
cannot be selected (have zero probability)
 Not a probability sample if probabilities of selection are not
known.
 Cannot guarantee “representativeness” on all traits of
interest
 A sampling plan with known statistical properties
 Permits statements like: “The probability is .99 that the
true population correlation falls between .46 and .56.”
 Cont…..
• Stratified sampling: in stratified sampling, the
population is partitioned into two or more
subpopulation called strata, and from each stratum a
desired sample size is selected at random.
• Cluster sampling: in cluster sampling, a random
sample of the strata is selected and then samples from
these selected strata are obtained.
• Systemic sampling: in systemic sampling, we start at a
random point in the sampling frame, and from this point
selected every kth, say, value in the frame to formulate
the sample.
 Simple Random Sampling

 It is the simplest and a basic probability selection scheme

 It is the purest form of probability sampling.
 Each member of the population has an equal and known
chance of being selected.
 When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or
impossible to identify every member of the population
 There are two types of random sampling: sampling with
replacement (wr) and sampling without replacement (wor).
 ......SRS
Sampling without replacement (wor):
 once a unit has been selected, it cannot be selected again.
 no unit can appear more than once in the sample.
 If there are n sample units required for selection from a Population
having N units, then there are (NCn) ways of selecting n units out
of a total of N
 (N C n) possible samples will be selected
Sampling with replacement:
 the process allows for a unit to be selected on more than one draw.
 there are Nn ways of selecting n units out a total of N units
Methods of Sample Selection
There are two types of sample
selection methods under SRS
a. Lottery method
b. Random table method
 Lottery method
 You could print off the list of N clients, tear then into
separate strips, put the strips in a hat, mix them up real
good, close your eyes and pull out the first n.

 Here's a simple procedure that's especially useful if you have

the names of the clients already on the computer. Many
computer programs can generate a series of random
numbers. Let's assume you can copy and paste the list of
client names into a column in an EXCEL spreadsheet. Then,
in the column right next to it paste the function =RAND()
which is EXCEL's way of putting a random number between
0 and 1 in the cells. Then, sort both columns -- the list of
names and the random number -- by the random numbers.
 Random Numbers
The member of the population are numbered from 1 to N and n
numbers are selected from one of the random tables in any
convenient and systematic way. A table of random numbers
consists of digits from 0 to 9, which are equally represented with
no pattern or order. The procedure of selection is outlined as
follows
 Identify the population units (N) and give serial number from 1
to N. This total number N determines how many of the random
digits we need when selecting each element
 Decide the sample size (n) to be selected.
 Select a starting point of the table of random numbers; you can
start from any one of the columns, which can be determined
randomly.
 ............SRS
 Since each digits has an equal chance of begin selected at
any draw, you may read down columns of digits in the
table.
 Depending on the size of N,you can use numbers in pairs,
three at a time, four at a time, and so on
 If selected numbers are less or equal to the population size
N, then they will be considered.
 Ignore all numbers greater than N for sampling without
replacement, reject numbers that come up for a second
time.
 The selection process continues unit n distinct units are
obtained.
 Stratified random sampling
 Stratified Random Sampling involves dividing your
population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a
simple random sample in each subgroup.

 Objective: Divide the population into non-overlapping

groups (i.e., strata) N1, N2, N3, ... Ni, such that N1 + N2 + N3
+ ... + Ni = N. Then do a simple random sample depending
on the type of allocation
n
 Proportional allocation: ni  * Ni
N
Example:
 An agency has clients from three ethnic groups and the
agency wants to asses clients view of quality of service for the
Cont…
Stratified random sampling
 Systematic random sampling
 Here are the steps you need to follow in order to
achieve a systematic random sample:

 number the units in the population from 1 to N

 decide on the n (sample size) that you want or
need
 k = N/n = the interval size
 randomly select an integer between 1 to k
 then take every kth unit
Systematic random sampling
 Example
 Cluster (area) random sampling
 The problem with random sampling methods when we have to
sample a population that's disbursed across a wide geographic
region is that you will have to cover a lot of ground
geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled
 In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:
 divide population into clusters (usually along geographic
boundaries)
 randomly sample clusters
 measure all units within sampled clusters
Cont…
Cluster sampling cont…
 Probability Sampling cont…
Cluster sampling:
 Sampling units in clusters are internally heterogeneous
but externally homogeneous in a certain characteristics.
 A cluster has listing units associated with it in units can
be geographical, temporal, or spatial in nature
 cluster sampling can be defined as any sampling plan
that uses a frame consisting of clusters of listing units
 In a single stage sampling, we select a sample of clusters
and completely cover all units within selected clusters.
 The important reasons for using cluster sampling are
feasibility and economy
 In cluster sampling, first, a simple random sample or
systematic random sample of clusters is chosen from a
sampling frame of clusters.
 Multi-stage sampling
 The four methods we've covered so far -- simple, stratified,
systematic and cluster -- are the simplest random sampling strategies
 When we combine sampling methods, we call this multi-stage
sampling
 Consider the problem of sampling students in grade schools. We
might begin with a national sample of school districts stratified by
educational level. Within selected districts, we might do a simple
random sample of schools. Within schools, we might do a simple
random sample of classes or grades. And, within classes, we might
even do a simple random sample of students. In this case, we have
three or four stages in the sampling process and we use both
stratified and simple random sampling.
 Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Convenience Sampling Method

Convenience samples:
 samples drawn at the convenience of the
interviewer. People tend to make the
selection at familiar locations and to
choose respondents who are like
themselves.
 attempts to obtain a sample of convenient
elements. Often, respondents are selected
because they happen to be in the right
place at the right time.
Convenience samples
 use of students, and members of social
organizations
 mall intercept interviews without qualifying the
respondents
 department stores using charge account lists
 “people on the street” interviews
• Error occurs 1) in the form of members of the
population who are infrequent or nonusers of
that location and 2) who are not typical in the
population
 Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Judgment Sampling Method

• Judgment samples: samples that require a

judgment or an “educated guess” on the part of the
interviewer as to who should represent the
population. Also, “judges” (informed individuals)
may be asked to suggest who should be in the
sample.
• Subjectivity enters in here, and certain members
of the population will have a smaller or no chance
of selection compared to others
• purchase engineers selected in industrial
marketing research
• bellwether precincts selected in voting behavior
research
 Nonprobabilty Sampling Methods
Snowball Sampling
• Referral samples (snowball samples): samples which
require respondents to provide the names of additional
respondents
• Members of the population who are less known, disliked,
or whose opinions conflict with the respondent have a
low probability of being selected.
In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is
selected, usually at random.
 After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to
identify others who belong to the target population of
interest.
 Subsequent respondents are selected based on the
referrals.
 Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is often used
for populations that are not easily
   identified or accessed; and
involves building a sample
 through referrals, i.e.) you
   identify someone from your
   population willing to be in your

  study. You then ask them to
identify others who meet the
study criteria. Each of those
individuals is then asked for
further recommendations.
 Quota Samples
• Quota Samples: samples that
set a specific number of certain
types of individuals to be
interviewed
• Often used to ensure that
convenience samples will have
desired proportion of different
respondent classes
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Table 11.3
Basic Sampling Techniques
Technique Strengths Weaknesses
Nonprobability Sampling Least expensive, least Selection bias, sample not
Convenience sampling time-consuming, most representative, not recommended for
convenient descriptive or causal research
Judgmental sampling Low cost, convenient, Does not allow generalization,
not time-consuming subjective
Quota sampling Sample can be controlled Selection bias, no assurance of
for certain characteristics representativeness
Snowball sampling Can estimate rare Time-consuming
characteristics
Sample size determination
Depends on
 Objective of the study

 Design of the study

 Plan for statistical analysis

 Accuracy of the measurement to be made

 Degree of precision required for generalization

 Degree of confidence
Sample size determination
 Given confidence interval

mean ( proportion)  z s.e

 Hence the absolute precision
2 denoted by d is given

as
d  z  s.e
2

 Where s.e is the standard error of the estimator of the

parameter of interest.
 Estimating a single population mean

Where the standard deviation δ can be estimated by;

From previous study, if there is
From pilot study
From educate guess
 Single population proportion
 Let p denotes proportion of success, then

Where the standard deviation p can be estimated by;

From previous study, if there is
From pilot study
P=50%
Point to be considered
Example