Theories of GD

DEVELOPMENTAL
THEORIES
• Psychoanalytic / Psychosexual
Theory
• Theory of Psychosocial
Development
• Theory of Cognitive
Development
• Theory of Moral Development
• Developmental Task Theory
• Behaviorism
SIGMUND FREUD’S
PSYCHOANA LYTIC/
PSCHOSEXUAL T HEORY
PSYCHOANALYTIC/PSCHOSEXUAL THEORY
• LEVEL OF AWARENESS
– CONSCIOUS
• Logical and regulated by reality
principle
– PRECONSCIOUS
• Subconscious
– UNCONSCIOUS
• Not logical & governed by
pleasure principle
• SYSTEMS OF PERSONALITY
– ID
• Source of all drives
• Pleasure principle
– EGO
• Reality testing & problem solving
– SUPEREGO
• Conscience, perfection, & ideal
1. ORAL STAGE
child explores the world by using
mouth
suck for enjoyment or relief of
tension, as well as nourishment.
Infant is concerned with self
gratification
– Infant is all ID
The EGO begins to emerge as
infant begins to see self as
separate from the mother
NSG IMPLICATIONS:
– Provide oral stimulation by giving
pacifiers
– Do not discourage thumbsucking.
– Breastfeeding may provide more
stimulation that formula feeding.
2. ANAL STAGE
Toddlers find pleasure in both
retention of feces and defecation.
Toilet training occurs during this
period.
Child begins to gain a sense of
control over instinctive drives and
learns to delay immediate
gratification to gain a future goal.
NSG. IMPLICATIONS:
Help children achieve bowel and

bladder control
Continue bowel training while the
child is hospitalized.
3. PHALLIC STAGE
– Pleasurable and conflicting feelings
associated with the genital organs
– The pleasures of masturbation and
the fantasy life of children set the
stage of the Oedipus complex.
– Ambivalence
– The emergence of the superego is
the solution to and the result of
these intense impulses.
NSG. IMPLICATIONS:
• Accept child’s sexual interest, such
as fondling his or her own genitals, as
a normal area of exploration.
Help parents answer child’s
questions about birth or sexual
differences.
4. LATENCY STAGE
– Personality development appears
to be non-active or dormant
– Tapering off of conscious biological
and sexual urges
– Growth of ego functions and the
ability to care about and relate to
others outside the home is the task
of this stage
NSG. IMPLICATION:
• Help the child have
positive experiences.
5. GENITAL STAGE
– emerges at adolescence with the
onset of puberty, when genital
organs mature
– The individual gains gratification
from his or her own body.
– Develops satisfying sexual and
emotional relationships with
members of the opposite gender.
– The individual plans life goals and
gains a strong sense of identity.
NSG. IMPLICATIONS:
Provide appropriate
opp ortunities for the child to
relate with opposite sex
• Allow the child to verbalize
feelings about new
relationships.
ERIK ERIKSON’S
THEORY OF PSYCH O S O C I A L
DEVELOPM ENT
THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
INFANCY
• Crisis: Trust versus mistrust
• Task: attachment to the mother
• Successful:
– Trust in persons; faith and hope
about the environment and future
• Unsuccessful:
– General difficulties relating to
persons effectively; suspicion;
trust-fear conflict, fear of the future
NURSING IMPLICATIONS
• Provide a primary caregiver
• Provide experiences that add to
security, such as soft sounds
and touch.
• Provide visual stimulation for
active child involvement.
EARLY CHILDHOOD (TODDLER)
Crisis: Autonomy versus shame and

doubt
Task: Gaining some basic control over
self and environment
• Successful:
– Sense of self-control and adequacy;
will power
• Unsuccessful:
– Independence-fear conflict; severe
feelings of self-doubt
• Provide opportunities for

decision making.
• Praise for ability to make
decisions rather that judging
correctness of any one
decision.
LATE CHILDHOOD (PRESCHOOLER)
• Crisis: Initiative versus guilt

• Task: Becoming purposeful
and directive
• Successful:
– Ability to initiate one’s own
activities; sense of purpose
• Unsuccessful:
– Aggression-fear conflict; sense
of inadequacy or guilt
• Provide opportunities for

exploring new places or
activities.
• Allow play to include activities
involving clay, water, or finger
paint.
SCHOOL AGE
• Crisis: Industry versus inferiority
Task: Developing social, physical, and
learning skills
• Successful:
– Competence; ability to learn and
work
• Unsuccessful:
– Sense of inferiority; difficulty
learning and working
NURSING IMPLICATION
• Provide opportunities for the

child to feel rewarded for
accomplishment.
ADOLESCENCE
• Crisis: Identity versus role confusion
• Task: Developing sense of identity
• Successful:
– Sense of personal identity
• Unsuccessful:
– Confusion about who one is; identity
submerged in relationships or group
memberships
• Provide opportunities for the

adolescent to discuss feelings
about events important to him
or her.
• Offer support and praise for
decision making.
EARLY ADULTHOOD
20-35 yrs
• Crisis: Intimacy versus isolation

• Task: Establishing intimate bonds
of love and friendship
• Successful:
– Ability to love deeply and commit
oneself
• Unsuccessful:
– Emotional isolation, egocentricity
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
35-65 yrs
• Crisis: Generativity versus

stagnation
• Task: Fulfilling life goals that
involve family, career, and society
• Successful:
– Ability to give and care for others
• Unsuccessful:
– Self-absorption; inability to grow as a
person
LATE ADULTHOOD
65 yrs to death
• Crisis: Integrity versus despair

• Task: Looking back over one’s
life and accepting its meaning
• Successful:
– Sense of integrity and fulfillment
• Unsuccessful:
– Dissatisfaction with life
JEAN PIAGET’S
THEORY OF COG NITIVE

DEVELOPM ENT
THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
A. SENSORIMOTOR
1. Neonatal reflex Birth –  Most action is reflexive.
1mo
2. Primary circular 1–4  Perception of events is centered on the

reaction mos body.
 Objects are extension of self.
 Toy: Rattle
3. Secondary 4–8  Acknowledges the external

circular environment.
reaction  Learns to initiate, recognize, and
repeat pleasurable experience from
the environment.
 Memory traces are present.
4. Coordination of 8-12  Plan activities to attain specific goals.
secondary  Can search for and retrieve toy that
reactions disappears from view.
 Increased sense of separateness.
 Toy: Nesting toys (i.e. colored boxes)
 Game: Peek-a-boo
5. Ter tiary circular 12 – 18  Experiments to discover new

reaction properties of objects and events.
 Capable of space and time perception
and permanence.
 Game: Throw and retrieve
6. Invention of 18 – 24  Uses memory and imitation to act
new means  Can solve basic problems
 Toys: toys w/ several uses (blocks,
rings, boxes)
B. PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT
• Preconceptual 2 – 4 yrs  Egocentric
Phase  Displays static thinking.
 Prelogical reasoning.
 Everything is significant and relates to “me”
 Explores the environment
 Language development is rapid
 Associates words with objects.
• Intuitive Phase 4 – 7  Centering
 Lack of conservation and reversibility.
 Role fantasy thinking.
 Assimilation
 Magical Thinking
 Accommodation
 Unable to state cause-effect relationship
JEAN PIAGET’S
C. CONCRETE 7 – 12  Inductive reasoning

OPERATIONAL  Solve everyday problems
THOUGHT  Recognize cause-effect relationship
 With concept of conservation
 Numbers: 7 years old
 Quantity: 7- 8 years old
 Weight: 9 years old
 Volume: 11 years old
 Aware of reversibility
 Decentering
 Class inclusion
 Activity: collecting and classifying
objects
D. FORMAL 12 yrs  Uses rational thinking

OPERA- up  Abstract thought rather that
TIONAL concrete thought.
THOUGHT  Activity: “talk-time”
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S
THEORY OF MO RAL
DEVELOPM ENT
THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL STAGE AGE

I. 0. Egocentric Judgment Birth-2
PRE-CONVENTIONAL  The infant has no awareness of right yrs
MORALITY or wrong.
1. Punishment & Obedient Orientation 2-3
 Egocentric Focus
 Fear of punishment, not respect for
authority, is the reason for decision,
behavior, and conformity.
2. Instrumental Relativist Orientation 4-7
 Conformity is based on egocentricity
and narcissistic needs. There is no
feeling of justice, loyalty, or gratitude.
II. 3. Interpersonal Concordance Orientation 7-10

CONVENTIONAL  Decisions and behavior are based on
MORALITY concerns about other’s reactions; the
 Societal Focus person wants others’ approval.
4. Law-and-Order Orientation 10-12
 The person wants established rules
from authorities, and the reason for
decisions and behavior is that social and
sexual rules and traditions demand the
response.
III. 5. Social Contract Legalistic Orientation Older

POST  The social rules are not the sole basis for than
CONVENTIONAL decisions and behavior because the person 12
 Universal Focus believes a higher moral principle applies
such as equality, justice, or due process.
6. Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
 Decisions and behaviors are based on
internalized rules, on conscience rather
than social laws, and on self-chosen ethical
and abstract principles that are universal,
comprehensive and consistent.
ROBERT HAVIGHURST’S
DE VE L O PM ENTAL TASK
THE O RY
DEVELOPMENTAL TASK THEORY
INFANCY AND EARLY

CHILDHOOD
• Learning to walk
• Learning to take solid foods
• Learning to talk
Learning to control the elimination of body
wastes
Learning sex differences and sexual
modesty
• Achieving psychologic stability
• Forming simple concepts of social and
physical reality
Learning to relate emotionally to parents,
siblings, and other people
• Learning to distinguish right from wrong and
developing a conscience
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary
games
Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a
growing organism
• Learning to get along with age-mates
Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine
social role
• Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing,
and calculating
• Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of
values
• Achieving personal independence
Developing attitudes toward social groups and
institutions
ADOLESCENCE
• Achieving new and more mature relations with
age-mates of both sexes
• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
• Accepting one’s physique and using the body
effectively
• Achieving emotional independence from parents
and other adults
• Achieving assurance of economic independence
• Selecting and preparing for an occupation
• Preparing for marriage and family life
• Developing intellectual skills and concepts
necessary for civic competence
• Desiring and achieving socially responsible
behavior
• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as
a guide to behavior
EARLY ADULTHOOD
• Selecting a mate
• Learning to live with a partner
• Starting a family
• Rearing children
• Managing a home
• Getting started in an occupation
• Talking on civic responsibility
• Finding a congenial social
group
MIDDLE AGE
Achieving adult civic and social

responsibility
• Establishing and maintaining an
economic standard of living
Assisting teenage children to become
responsible and happy adults
• Developing adult leisure-time activities
• Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a
person
• Accepting and adjusting to the
physiologic changes of middle age
• Adjusting to aging process
LATER MATURITY
• Adjusting to decreasing physical

strength and health
• Adjusting to retirement and reduced
income
• Adjusting to death of a spouse
• Establishing an explicit affiliation
with one’s age group
• Meeting social and civil obligations
• Establishing satisfactory physical
living arrangements
J O H N WAT SO N’S
THEORY O N
B E H AVIORISM
BEHAVIORISM
Behaviors can be elicited by positive

reinforcement, such as food treat, or
extinguished by negative
reinforcement, such as by scolding
or withdrawing attention.
Watson believed that he could make
of a child anyone he desired – from a
professional to a thief or beggar –
simply by reinforcing behavior in
certain ways.
BEHAVIORISM
• NURSING APPLICATION:
– Positive reinforcement can be
established to encourage these
behaviors.
– Behavioral techniques are also
used to alter behavior or to teach
skills to handicapped children.
– Parents often use reinforcement
in toilet training and other skills
learned in childhood.

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Theories of GD

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DEVELOPMENTAL

Help children achieve bowel and

EARLY CHILDHOOD (TODDLER)

Crisis: Autonomy versus shame and

• Provide opportunities for

LATE CHILDHOOD (PRESCHOOLER)

• Crisis: Initiative versus guilt

• Provide opportunities for

• Provide opportunities for the

• Provide opportunities for the

• Crisis: Intimacy versus isolation

• Crisis: Generativity versus

• Crisis: Integrity versus despair

THEORY OF COG NITIVE

2. Primary circular 1–4  Perception of events is centered on the

3. Secondary 4–8  Acknowledges the external

5. Ter tiary circular 12 – 18  Experiments to discover new

C. CONCRETE 7 – 12  Inductive reasoning

D. FORMAL 12 yrs  Uses rational thinking

LEVEL STAGE AGE

II. 3. Interpersonal Concordance Orientation 7-10

III. 5. Social Contract Legalistic Orientation Older

INFANCY AND EARLY

Achieving adult civic and social

• Adjusting to decreasing physical

Behaviors can be elicited by positive

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