Molecular Biology of The Gene: Figures 10.1 - 10.5

CHAPTER 10
Molecular Biology of
the Gene
Figures 10.1 – 10.5
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides for

Essential Biology, Second Edition & Essential Biology with Physiology
Neil Campbell, Jane Reece, and Eric Simon
Presentation prepared by Chris C. Romero

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
THE STRUCTURE AND REPLICATION OF DNA
• DNA
– Was known as a chemical in cells by the end of the

nineteenth century
– Has the capacity to store genetic information
– Can be copied and passed from generation to
generation

DNA and RNA: Polymers of Nucleotides
• DNA and RNA are nucleic acids
– They consist of chemical units called nucleotides
– The nucleotides are joined by a sugar-phosphate
backbone

Phosphate group Nitrogenous base
Sugar Nitrogenous base

(A,G,C, or T)
Nucleotide
Thymine (T)
Phosphate
group
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
DNA nucleotide
Polynucleotide Sugar-phosphate backbone

Figure 10.2
• The four nucleotides found in DNA
– Differ in their nitrogenous bases
– Are thymine (T), cytosine (C), adenine (A), and
guanine (G)
• RNA has uracil (U) in place of thymine

Watson and Crick’s Discovery of the Double Helix
• James Watson and Francis Crick determined that
DNA is a double helix
(a) James Watson and Francis Crick Figure 10.3a

• Watson and Crick
used X-ray
crystallography data
to reveal the basic
shape of DNA
– Rosalind Franklin
collected the X-ray
crystallography data
(b) Rosalind Franklin
Figure 10.3b
• The model of DNA is like a rope ladder twisted into
a spiral
Twist Figure 10.4

• Detailed representations of DNA
– Notice that the bases pair in a complementary
fashion
Hydrogen bond
(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.5

CHAPTER 10
the Gene
Figures 10.6 – 10.14


DNA Replication
• When a cell or organism reproduces, a complete set
of genetic instructions must pass from one
generation to the next

• Watson and
Crick’s model Parental (old)
DNA molecule
for DNA
suggested
that DNA
replicated by
Daughter
a template (new) strand
mechanism
Daughter
DNA molecule
(double helices)
Figure 10.6
• DNA can be damaged by ultraviolet light
– The enzymes and proteins involved in replication
can repair the damage
Figure 10.7
• DNA replication
Origin of Origin of
replication replication
– Begins at
specific sites
on a double Origin of Parental strand
replication
helix Daughter strand
– Proceeds in
both
directions Bubble
Two daughter DNA molecules
Figure 10.8
THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION
FROM DNA TO RNA TO PROTEIN
• DNA functions as the inherited directions for a cell
or organism
– How are these directions carried out?

How an Organism’s DNA Genotype Produces Its
Phenotype
• An organism’s genotype, its genetic makeup is the
sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA
– The phenotype is the organism’s specific traits

• DNA specifies Nucleus
DNA
the synthesis of
proteins in two Transcription
stages RNA
– Transcription
– Translation
Translation
Protein
Cytoplasm
Figure 10.9
• The one gene–one protein hypothesis states that the
function of an individual gene is to dictate the
production of a specific protein

From Nucleotide Sequence to Amino Acid
Sequence: An Overview
• The information, or “language,” in DNA is
ultimately translated into the language of
polypeptides

• What is the
language of DNA molecule
nucleic acids? Gene 1
Gene 2
– In DNA, it is
Gene 3
the linear
DNA strand
sequence of
nucleotide Transcription
bases RNA
Translation Codon
Polypeptide
Amino acid
Figure 10.10
• When DNA is transcribed, the result is an RNA
molecule
• RNA is then translated into a sequence of amino

acids in a polypeptide

• What is the correspondence between the nucleotides
of an RNA molecule and the amino acids of a
polypeptide?

• Triplets of bases
– Specify all the amino acids
– Are called codons

The Genetic Code
• The genetic code is the set of rules relating
nucleotide sequence to amino acid sequence
Figure 10.11
• The genetic code is
shared by all
organisms
Figure 10.12
Transcription: From DNA to RNA
• In transcription
– Genetic information is transferred from DNA to
RNA
– An RNA molecule is transcribed from a DNA
template

RNA nucleotides
RNA
polymerase
Newly made
RNA Direction of
Template
transcription
strand of DNA
(a) A close-up view of transcription

Figure 10.13a
• Transcription RNA polymerase
DNA of gene
of an entire
gene Promoter
DNA Terminator
Initiation
DNA
RNA Area shown

Elongation in part (a)
Termination
Growing
RNA
Completed RNA
RNA
polymerase
(b) Transcription of a gene
Figure 10.13b
Initiation of Transcription
• The “start transcribing” signal is a nucleotide
sequence called a promoter
• The first phase of transcription is initiation

– RNA polymerase attaches to the promoter
– RNA synthesis begins

RNA Elongation
• The second phase of transcription is elongation
– The RNA grows longer

Termination of Transcription
• The third phase of transcription is termination
– RNA polymerase reaches a sequence of DNA bases
called a terminator

The Processing of Eukaryotic RNA
• The eukaryotic cell processes the RNA after
transcription

• RNA processing
DNA
includes Transcription
Cap Addition of cap and tail
– Adding a cap RNA

transcript
with cap
and tail and tail Introns removed Tail
– Removing Exons spliced together
introns mRNA
Coding sequence
– Splicing exons
Nucleus
together
Cytoplasm
Figure 10.14
CHAPTER 10
the Gene
Figures 10.15 – 10.23


Translation: The Players
• Translation
– Is the conversion from the nucleic acid language to
the protein language

Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• mRNA
– Is the first ingredient for translation

Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• tRNA
Amino acid attachment site
– Acts as a
molecular
interpreter
– Carries amino Hydrogen bond
acids RNA
polynucleotide
chain
– Matches amino
acids with codons Anticodon
Anticodon
in mRNA using
anticodons
Figure 10.15
Ribosomes
• Ribosomes
tRNA
– Are organelles binding sites
that actually P site A site
Large
make subunit
polypeptides
– Are made up of mRNA
binding
P A
two protein site
subunits
Small
– Contain subunit
ribosomal RNA (a)
(rRNA)
Figure 10.16a
• A fully
assembled
ribosome holds Next amino acid
to be added to
tRNA and polypeptide
mRNA for use Growing

polypeptide
in translation
tRNA
mRNA
(b)
Figure 10.16b

Translation: The Process
• Translation is divided into three phases
– Initiation
– Elongation
– Termination

Initiation
• The first phase brings together
– The mRNA
– The first amino acid with its attached tRNA
– The two subunits of the ribosome

• An mRNA molecule has a cap and tail that help it
bind to the ribosome
Start of genetic message

End
Cap
Tail
Figure 10.17
• The process Met
Initiator
of initiation tRNA
mRNA
Start codon
1
Small ribosomal
subunit Large ribosomal
subunit
A site
Initiation
P site
Figure 10.18.1
Elongation
• Step 1, codon recognition
– The anticodon of an incoming tRNA pairs with the

mRNA codon

• Step 2, peptide bond formation
– The ribosome catalyzes bond formation between
amino acids

• Step 3, translocation
– A tRNA leaves the P site of the ribosome
– The ribosome moves down the mRNA

• The process Amino acid
Polypeptide
of elongation
P site
Anticodon
mRNA
A site
Codons
1 Codon recognition
Elongation
2 Peptide bond formation
New peptide
bond
mRNA
movement
3 Translocation Figure 10.19

Termination
• Elongation continues until the ribosome reaches a
stop codon

Review: DNA RNA Protein
• The flow of genetic information in a cell

RNA Polymerase
1 Transcription
Nucleus
RNA
transcript
DNA
Intron 2 RNA processing

Amino acid
Tail CAP
mRNA
Intron
Enzyme
3 Amino acid attachment

Ribosomal
subunits
4 Initiation of translation
Stop codon
Anticodon
Codon
6 Termination
5 Elongation
Figure 10.20
• In eukaryotic cells
– Transcription occurs in the nucleus
– Translation occurs in the cytoplasm

• Transcription and translation
– Are the processes whereby genes control the

structures and activities of cells

Mutations
• A mutation
– Is any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
Normal hemoglobin DNA Mutant hemoglobin DNA
mRNA mRNA
Normal hemoglobin Sickle-cell hemoglobin

Glu Val
Figure 10.21
Types of Mutations
• Mutations within a gene
– Can be
divided into
two general mRNA
categories Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Ala
– Can result
(a) Base substitution
in changes
in the amino
acids in Met Lys Phe Ser Ala
proteins
Figure 10.22a
• Insertions and deletions
– Can have
disastrous
mRNA
effects
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Ala
– Change the
reading (b) Nucleotide deletion
frame of the
genetic
message Met Lys Leu Ala His
Figure 10.22b
Mutagens
• Mutations may result from
– Errors in DNA replication
– Physical or chemical agents called mutagens

• Although mutations
are often harmful
– They are the source
of the rich diversity
of genes in the
living world
– They contribute to
the process of
evolution by
natural selection
Figure 10.23
CHAPTER 10
the Gene
Figures 10.24 – 10.29


VIRUSES: GENES IN PACKAGES
• Viruses sit on the fence between life and nonlife
– They exhibit
some but not all
characteristics
of living
organisms
Figure 10.24
Bacteriophages
• Bacteriophages, or phages
– Attack bacteria
Head
Tail
Tail fiber
DNA of virus
Bacterial
cell
Figure 10.25
• Phages have two reproductive cycles
Bacterial
Phage DNA chromosome
4 Cell lyses, (DNA)
releasing phages 1
Many cell divisions
7 Occasionally a prophage
may leave the bacterial
chromosome
Lytic cycle Lysogenic cycle
2 Phage DNA circularizes 6 Lysogenic bacterium

reproduces normally,
Prophage replicating the prophage
at each cell division
3 New phage DNA and 5 Phage DNA inserts into the bacterial
proteins are sythesized chromosome by recombination Figure 10.26

Plant Viruses
• Viruses that infect plants
– Can stunt growth Protein RNA
and diminish
plant yields
– Can spread
throughout the
entire plant
Figure 10.27
• Genetic engineering methods
– Have been used to create virus-resistant plants

Animal Viruses
• Virus studies help establish molecular genetics
• Molecular genetics helps us understand viruses

Membranous
envelope
RNA
Protein
coat
Protein
spike
Figure 10.28
• The reproductive cycle of an enveloped virus

VIRUS Protein spike
Viral RNA Protein coat

(genome) Envelope
Plasma 1 Entry
membrane
of host cell
2 Uncoating
RNA synthesis
3 by viral enzyme
4 Protein 5 RNA synthesis

mRNA synthesis (other strand)
Template
New viral genome

6 Assembly
New viral proteins
Exit
7
Figure 10.29
CHAPTER 10
the Gene
Figures 10.30 – 10.32


HIV, the AIDS Virus
• HIV is a retrovirus
– A retrovirus is an
Envelope
RNA virus that Protein
reproduces by Protein coat
means of a DNA
molecule RNA
(two identical
strands)
– It copies its RNA

to DNA using Reverse
transcriptase
reverse
transcriptase (a) HIV
Figure 10.30a
• How HIV Viral RNA Reverse Cytoplasm
transcriptase
reproduces 1
Nucleus
inside a Chromosomal
DNA DNA
cell strand 2
3
Provirus
Double- DNA
stranded 4
DNA
5
Viral
RNA and
proteins
6
(b) The behavior of HIV nucleic acid in an infected cell

Figure 10.30b
• AIDS is
– Acquired immune
deficiency
syndrome
– The disease caused
by HIV infection
– Treated with the
drug AZT
(c) HIV infecting a white blood cell
Figure 10.30c
EVOLUTION CONNECTION:
EMERGING VIRUSES
• Many new viruses have
emerged in recent years
– HIV
– Ebola (a) Ebola virus
– Hantavirus
(b) Hantavirus
Figure 10.31
• How do new viruses arise?
– Mutation of
existing
viruses
– Spread to
new host
species
Figure 10.32
SUMMARY OF KEY CONCEPTS
• DNA and RNA: Polymers of Nucleotides
Nitrogenous
base
Phosphate
group
Sugar
DNA Nucleotide
Polynucleotide
Visual Summary 10.1

• DNA
Replication
Parental
DNA molecule
Identical
daughter
DNA molecules
Visual Summary 10.2

• Translation: The Players
Amino acid
Large
ribosomal
subunit
tRNA
Anticodon
mRNA
Codons
Small ribosomal subunit

Visual Summary 10.3

Molecular Biology of The Gene: Figures 10.1 - 10.5

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CHAPTER 10

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides for

Neil Campbell, Jane Reece, and Eric Simon

Presentation prepared by Chris C. Romero

– Was known as a chemical in cells by the end of the

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Sugar Nitrogenous base

Polynucleotide Sugar-phosphate backbone

• RNA has uracil (U) in place of thymine

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(a) James Watson and Francis Crick Figure 10.3a

(b) Rosalind Franklin

Twist Figure 10.4

(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.5

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides for

Neil Campbell, Jane Reece, and Eric Simon

Presentation prepared by Chris C. Romero

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Two daughter DNA molecules

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

nucleic acids? Gene 1

• RNA is then translated into a sequence of amino

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(a) A close-up view of transcription

RNA Area shown

• The first phase of transcription is initiation

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Adding a cap RNA

– Removing Exons spliced together

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides for

Neil Campbell, Jane Reece, and Eric Simon

Presentation prepared by Chris C. Romero

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

ribosomal RNA (a)

mRNA for use Growing

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Start of genetic message

– The anticodon of an incoming tRNA pairs with the

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

2 Peptide bond formation

3 Translocation Figure 10.19

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Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Intron 2 RNA processing

3 Amino acid attachment

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Are the processes whereby genes control the

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings