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LONGITUDINAL STRAIN
The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the body is known as longitudinal or
linear strain
Where
δL = Increase in length
δd = Decrease in diameter
Lateral Stain (et) = δd / d
Where,
δd = Change in diameter
d = Original diameter
Where,
δb = Increase in breadth
δt = Decrease in thickness
POISSON’S RATIO
When a body is stressed, within its elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal
strain is constant for a given material.
1/m = et / el
VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
The ratio of change in volume to the original volume is known as volumetric strain.
ee = dV / V
ee = dV / V
= δL / L [ 1- (2/m)]
where,
δL = change in length
L = original length
1/m = poison's ratio
Volumetric Strain of a Cylindrical Rod
ee = dV / V
= δL / L – [2 δd /d ]
where,
δL = change in length
L = original length
δd = Change in diameter
d = Original diameter
E = σ / et
Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)
When a body is stressed, within its elastic limit, the ratio of shearing stress to the
corresponding shearing strain is constant.
Its is denoted by G or C or N
Modulus of Rigidity (G) = Shear stress/ Shear strain
= τ/ø
Where
τ = Shear stress
ø = Shear strain
i,e., E = 2G [1+(1/m)]
Where
E = Young’s modulus
G or C or N = Modulus of Rigidity
1/m = Poisson’s ratio
II. Relation between Bulk modulus (K) and Young’s modulus (E)
Formula Used
1. Stress (σ) = Load/Area
= P/A N/mm2
= δL / L
1/m = et / el
6. Young’s modulus ( E ) = Tensile stress / longitudinal strain
= σ / et
ee = dV / V
1. Determine the change in length, breadth and thickness of a steel bar which is 5m long,
20mm wide and 15mm thick subjected to an axial pull of 100 kn in the direction of its
length. Take E = 200 Gpa and Poisson's ratio = 0.3
2. A road bar as shown in fig.1.6 is subjected to an axial tensile load of 100kn. Determine the
diameter(D1) of the first part if the shear stress in the first part is 100 MN/m2. find also
total elongation. Take E = 290 Gpa.
3. The bar shown in fig.1.7 is subjected to a tensile load of 150 kn. Find the diameter of the
middle portion if the stress is limited to 160 N/mm2. find also the length of the middle
portion if the total elongation of the bar is 0.25 mm. Take E = 200 GN/m2.
4. A steel bar 900 mm long. Its two ends are 40 mm and 30 mm in diameter and the length of
each rod is 200 mm. the middle portion of the bar 15 mm in diameter and 500 mm long. If
the bar is subjected an axial tensile load of 15 kn. Determine 1) Stress in each section and
2) Total extension.
Assignment Problems:( Varying Cross Section)
1. An axial pull of 40 KN is acting on a bar consisting of three section of length 300 mm, 250
mm and 200 mm and of diameter 20mm, 40mm, and 50mm respectively. Find the stress in
each section and total extension of the bar. Take E = 2 ×105N/mm2.
2. The bar shown in fig1.1 is subjected to a tensile load of 150 KN. Find the diameter of the
middle portion if the stress is limited to 160 N/mm2. . Find also the length of the middle
portion if the total elongation of the bar is 0.25mm, Take E = 2 GN/m2.
Problems.
1. A member ABCD is subjected to loading as shown in fig.1.1.Determine the total elongation.
Take E = 2 ×105N/mm2.
2. A member ABCD is subjected to part loads as shown in fig.1.2. Calculate the force P2
necessary for equilibrium and total change in length of the bar. Take E = 210 KN / mm2
3. Calculate the force P3 and change in length for the following fig.1.3. Take E = 200GN/mm2.
P1 = 120 KN ; P2 = 220 KN ; and P4 = 160 KN.
Problems:
1. Extension or Compression in each bar is equal. So , the strain induced in those bars are
also equal.
Change in length of bar (1) = Change in length of bar (2)
2. The sum of loads carried by individual materials of a composite member is equal load
applied on the member.
Total load P = Load carried by bar (1) + Load carried by bar (2)
P = P1 + P2 …………………………( B)
Practice Problems:
1. A compound bar of length 500 mm consists of strip of aluminum 40 mm wide × 15 mm
thick and a strip of steel 40 mm wide × 10 mm thick rigidly joined at ends. If the bar is
subjected to a load of 50 kn, find the stress developed in each material and the extension
of the bar. Take modulus of elasticity of aluminum and steel as 1.1 × 105 N/mm2 and
2.1 × 105 N/mm2 .
4. Two vertical rods one of steel and the other of copper are each rigidly fixed at the top and
50 cm apart. Diameter and lengths of each rod 2 cm and 4m respectively. A cross bar fixed
to the rods at the lower ends carries load of 5000 N such that the cross bar remains
horizontal even after loading. Find the stress in each rod and the position of the load on the
bar. Take Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2 , Ec = 1× 105 N/mm2
TEMPERATURE or THERMAL STRESS AND STRAIN
When a material is free to expand or contract due to change in temperature, no stress and
strain will be developed in the material.
But when the material is rigidly fixed at both the ends, the change in length is prevented.
Due to change in temperature, stress will be developed in the material.
Such stress is known as thermal stress and the corresponding strain is known as thermal
strain.
In other words, thermal stress is the stress developed in material due to change in
temperature.
dL = αTL
Where,
α = Coefficient of linear expansion
T = Temperature
L = Length
When the fixture at the end B is removed, the rod is freely expand by dL. From that we came
to known BB’ = αTL . Shown fig .1.2
Compressive load P is applied at B’, the rod is decreased in its length L + αTL to L as shown
in fig. 1.3
We know that
We know that
E = Stress / Strain
σ= e×E
Thermal stress σ = αT E ……………………( 2)
We know that ,
Stress = Load / Area
Load = Stress × Area
P = αT E ×A …………………( 3)
Suppose a rod of length, when subjected to a rise of temperature is permitted to expand only
by δ, then
= (αTL – δ)
L
= (αTL – δ ) × E …………………………(4)
L
Practice Problems:
1. A rod of 3 m long is initially at a temperature of 15 ˚ C and it is raised to 90˚ C . Find the
expansion of the rod and if the expansion is prevented, find the stress in the material.
Take E = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2 ; α = 12 × 10-6 / ˚ C
2. A steel rod 4 m long and 30 mm diameter is connected to two grips and the rod is maintained
at a temperature of 70 ˚ C . Find out the force exerted by the rod after it has been cooled to
25˚ C , (a) The ends do not yield, and (b) The ends yield by 1.5 mm.
Take Es = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2 ; α = 12 ×10-6 / ˚ C
TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN BARS OF VARYING CROSS SECTION
Consider a bar of varying cross section as shown in fig .1.1
This bar is fixed at A and C and subjected to temperature variation.
When the temperature varies, the bar will tend to expand or contract.
but the same is prevented as it is fixed at both ends, so that the temperature stress will be
produced in that bar.
The total force or pull exerted in the bar (P1 = P2) = σ 1 A1 = σ 2 A2 ………….(1)
Change in length , δL = (σ 1 L1 / E ) + (σ 2 L2 / E)
δL = 1/E(σ 1 L1 + σ 2 L2 ) …………...(2)
δL = (σ 1 L1 / E1 ) + (σ 2 L2 / E2) ……………(3)
Problems:
1. A rod made of brass and steel is held between two right supports A and B as shown in fig.
find the stresses in each material if the temperature rises by 50 ˚ C .
Take Eb = 1.1 × 105 N/mm2
Es = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2
αb = 18 × 10-6 / ˚ C ; αs = 12 ×10-6 / ˚ C
2. Calculate the values of the stress and strain in portions AC and CB of the steel bar shown in
fig. A close fit exists at both of the rigid supports at room temperature and the temperature is
raised by 75 ˚ C . Take E = 200 Gpa and α = 12 ×10-6 / ˚ C for steel. Area of cross section of
AC is 400 mm2 and of BC is 800 mm2.
TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN COMPOSITE BARS
A composite member is composed of two or more different materials which are joined
together.
Fig 1.2 shows the composite bars consisting of brass and steel which are subjected to
temperature variation.
Due to different co-efficient of linear expansion, the two materials ( brass and steel)
expand or contract by different amount.
When the ends of bars are rigidly fixed, then the composite section as a whole will expand
or contract.
Since the linear expansion of brass is more than that of steel.
So, the actual expansion of the composite bars will be less than that of brass.
Therefore, brass will be subjected to compressive stress, whereas steel will be subjected to
tensile stress.
We know that,
stress in brass = (load on the brass) / (Area on the brass)
σb = Pb / Ab
Pb = σb × Ab
similarly
load on the steel , Ps = σs × As
under equilibrium condition, compression in the brass bar is equal to tension in the steel
bar,
load on the brass = load on the steel
σb × Ab = σs × As. …………………….( 1)
..
We know that
Actual expansion of steel, dLs = (free expansion of steel) + (Expansion due to tensile stress in
steel)
Actual expansion of brass, dLb = (free expansion of brass) +(compression due to tensile stress in
brass)
2. A gun metal rod 25 mm diameter screwed at the end passes through a steel tube 30 mm and
35 mm internal and external diameters. The temperature of the whole assembly is raised to
125 ˚ C and the nuts of the rod are then screwed lightly home on the ends of the tube.
Calculate the stresses developed in gun metal and steel tube when the temperature of the
assembly has fallen to 20 ˚ C.
Take Eg = 1 × 105 N/mm2
Es = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2
αg = 20 × 10-6 / ˚ C ; αs = 12 ×10-6 / ˚ C
PRRINCIPLE STRESSES AND STRAIN
In many engineering problems both direct (tensile or compressive stress ) and shear stresses
are at the same time.
or
In many situations, machine components are subjected to two or more stresses on a given
plane.
These stresses were acting in a plane, at right angles to the line of action of the force.
In such situation, the resultant stress across any cross section will be neither normal or
tangential to the plane.
The stresses, acting on an inclined plane or (oblique section) will be analyses.
Fig 1.1. shows a rectangular member of uniform cross section area (A) and unit thickness
subjected to a principle tensile stress (σ)
The Direct stress along x – axis , σ = P/A
Let
P = Axial force acting on the member.
A = Area C/S , which is perpendicular to the of action of the force ‘P’
Then
Area of section AB = AB × 1
= A ( t = 1 for unit thickness)
σ = P/A
= ( P/A) cos Ø
= σ × cos Ø [ σ = (P/A)]
The stress may be resolved in two components
One components will be normal to the section BC whereas the second components will be
along the section BC (i.e, tangential to the section BC)
The normal stress and tangential stress on the section BC are calculated as follows ( ref fig
1.3 )
Let
Pn = the tensile force perpendicular to the plane BC
= P cos Ø
Normal Stress σn = (force perpendicular to the plane BC/ Area of section BC)
= [ Pn / (A / cos Ø)]
= ( P/A) × (cos2 Ø)
σn = σ cos2 Ø …………………………………1
Tangential stress or shear stress (σt) = (force parallel to the plane BC/ Area of section BC)
= [ Pt / (A / cos Ø)]
take
Ø = 0 , cos2 0 = 1
here
cos2 Ø should be maximum
Take
2 Ø = 1 or 2 Ø = 90° or 270 °
Ø = 45° or 135 °
2. Find the diameter of a circular bar which is subjected to an axial pull of 160 kn, if the
maximum allowable shear stress on any section is 65 N/mm2.
3. A member subjected to a pull P consists of two pieces of wooden frame of cross section
35 mm × 15 mm connected by glued joints as shown in fig. calculate the maximum
permissible value of P which can withstand, if the permissible normal and tangential stress
in glue are 13 N/mm2 and 8 N/ mm2
MOHR,S CIRCLE METHOD
It is used to find out the normal ,tangential and resultant stress in oblique plane is Mohr's
method.
It is also graphical method
It is applicable in 3 cases such as
Case 1 : a body subjected to two mutually perpendicular unequal and like principal stress.
Case 2 : a body subjected to two mutually perpendicular unequal and unlike principal
stress.
Case 3 : a body subjected to two mutually perpendicular unequal like stresses accompanied
by a simple shear stress.
PRACTICE PROBLEM FOR THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING
1. An I section as shown in sketch span two supports 1.5m apart. Determine the total load
uniformly distributed on the entire span that the beam could carry in addition to a
concentrated load of 8 kn at its centre in order that extreme fiber stress is limited to 800
n/mm2
2. A simply supported timber beam of span 6m carries a UDL of 12 kn/m over the entire span &
a point load of 9 kn at 2.5m from the left support. If the bending stress in timber is not exceed
8 n/mm2, design a suitable section for the beam. The depth of the beam equals twice the
breadth.
3. A calculated the maximum bending stress & shear stress in a cantilever beam of span 6m.
Which carries a UDL of 5 kn/m over a distance of 4m from the free end. The cross section of
the beam is a rectangular of breadth 100mm & depth 150mm.
UNIT – IV
PART –A
Deflection of beams
Slope & Deflection of the beam may be determined analytically by following method
I. Double Integration Method
II. Macaulay's methods
III. Moment area methods
IV. Conjugate beam method
1) cantilever beam
2) SSB
1) cantilever beam
a) cantilever with point load at the free end
b) cantilever with UDL
c) cantilever with UVL
2) SSM
a) SSB with central point load
b) SSB with an eccentric point load.
c) SSB with UDL
PART –B
Shear stress distribution
Different cross section
1) rectangular sec
2) circular section
3) I- section
4) T- section
5) triangular section