Hydrologic Analysis

(Hydrograph Analysis)
• Mechanism of Runoff Generation
• Hydrograph Components
• Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH) and Baseflow
• Hydrograph Separation
• Time-Area Method
Runoff
• The term runoff is used for water that is on the run or in a flowing
state, in contrast to water held in storage or evaporated into the
atmosphere.
• Surface runoff or overland runoff is the part of runoff that travels
over the surface of the ground to reach a stream channel and through
the channel to the basin outlet.
• Subsurface runoff is that part of the runoff that travels under the
ground to reach a stream channel and ultimately the basin outlet. It
consist two parts: subsurface stormflow or interflow within the
saturated zone and groundwater flow which infiltrates deeper to
saturated zone and discharges into stream channel as base runoff.
Runoff
Hydrographs
• A plot of streamflow (discharge) against time at any section of a stream channel is known as a hydrograph.
• The runoff volume is equal to the excess rainfall from a precipitation storm over a drainage area, and results
in an equivalent volume increase in the flow of the receiving stream as represented in the area under the
hydrograph.
Mechanism of Runoff Generation
Mechanism of Runoff Generation
• The baseflow of a stream is contributed by the groundwater
discharge, shown as Path 2 in the figure.
• The process that leads to the direct streamflow is however not that
straightforward. There are 3 widely accepted theories.
1) Classic concept of Horton (1933) holds that any soil surface has a
certain maximum rate of water absorbance known as infiltration
capacity. If rainfall intensity at any time during storm exceeds the
infiltration capacity, water accumulates on the surface and runs
downslope as overland flow as shown as Path 1.
Mechanism of Runoff Generation
• Kirkby and Chorley (1967) suggested the theory of subsurface stormflow. A
densely vegetated humid region has the capacity to absorb all except the
rarest, most intense storms. A major part of this absorbed water moves
laterally through shallow soil horizon in the zone of aeration as shown as
Path 3.
• The third type of storm runoff for humid regions is based on the concept of
saturation overland flow (Musgrave and Holton, 1964). Rainfall causes a
thin layer of soil on some parts of basin to saturate upward from some
restricting boundary to the ground surface, especially in zones of shallow,
wet or less permeable soil. The rainfall cannot infiltrate further in the
saturated soil and runs over as the saturation overland flow. Some water
moving through the topsoil also appears as the return flow as shown in
Path 4.
Mechanism of Runoff Generation
Hydrograph Components
• A hydrograph resulting from a precipitation storm is known as a storm
hydrograph.
• The shape of a single storm hydrograph has a typical pattern.
Hydrograph Components
• The rising limb, the shape of which characterized by the basin
properties and the duration, intensity and uniformity of the rain.
• The crest segment includes the part of the hydrograph from the
inflection point on the rising limb to an inflection point on the
recession limb. The peak represents the arrival of flow at the outlet
from all parts of the basin.
• The end of the crest segment, known as the inflection point, marks
the time when direct runoff from the overland flow (excess rainfall)
into the stream ceases.
• The recession limb indicates the storage contribution from detention
storage, interflow and groundwater flow.
Direct Runoff Hydrograph and Baseflow Hydrograph

• It is convenient to consider the total flow to be divided into two parts:

the storm/direct runoff and the baseflow.
• A stream carries baseflow during most of the year when there are no
storms in the basin. This comes from the groundwater.
• The precipitation excess of a storm (i.e. net rainfall after all
abstractions) constitutes the direct runoff.
• The first step in the hydrograph analysis is to separate the baseflow
and direct runoff hydrograph.
• When multiple storms occur it is sometimes necessary to separate
the over-lapping parts of consecutive direct runoff hydrographs.
Hydrograph Separation
• There are two common approaches for separating hydrographs:
1. Use of recession curve equation

Qt  Q0 K t
where: Qt : discharge t time units after Q0
Q0: initial discharge (at t=0)
K: recession constant

2. Arbitrary nature. There are many technique under the second

approach.
Separation by Recession Curve Approach
• The hydrograph is plotted on a semilogarithmic paper with log of
discharge values on the y-axis and the corresponding time on the x-
axis.
• Since the logarithmic form of recession curve equation is a straight
line, the tail part of the hydrograph is extended back from by a
straight line under the hydrograph to a point under the inflection
point on the recession limb and then that point is joined to the point
at the beginning of the direct runoff.
• The area below the line approximates the groundwater and the
ordinates above the line are plotted as the direct runoff hydrograph
(DRH).
Separation by Recession Curve Approach
The daily stream flow data for the Merrimack River at a site having
drainage area of 6500 km2 are given in Table below. Separate the
baseflow from the direct runoff hydrograph (DRH) by the recession
curve method. Determine the equivalent depth of the direct runoff.
***The first step in the hydrograph analysis is to separate the baseflow and direct runoff hydrograph.

1. The hydrograph is plotted on a semilogarithmic paper

with log of discharge values on the y-axis and the
corresponding time on the x-axis.
2. the logarithmic form of recession curve equation is a
straight line, the tail part of the hydrograph is
extended back from by a straight line under the
hydrograph to a point under the inflection point on
the recession limb and then that point is joined to the
point at the beginning of the direct runoff..
3. The area below the line approximates the
groundwater and the ordinates above the line are
plotted as the direct runoff hydrograph (DRH).
***Calculation using excel spreadsheet
Time Flow Duration Runoff x Time
(days) (m3/s) DRH Ave Runoff (days) (m3.day/s)
1 168 0
2 160 0 0 1 0
3 500 340 170 1 170
4 1130 970 655 1 655
5 860 700 835 1 835
6 650 492 596 1 596
7 500 347 419.5 1 419.5
8 380 229 288 1 288
9 280 130 179.5 1 179.5
10 220 73 101.5 1 101.5
11 185 42 57.5 1 57.5
12 160 19 30.5 1 30.5
13 140 0 9.5 1 9.5
14 138 0 0 1 0
15 135 0 0 1 0
TOTAL 3342
Separation by Arbitrary Approach
• Method 1: The simplest method is to join the beginning of the direct runoff to
the end of direct runoff by a straight line.

• Method 2: Extend the recession curve before the storm to point C below the
peak. Connect point C to point D by a straight line. Point D on the hydrograph
represents N days after the peak and given by the formula:
N = aA0.2
Where N= time, days
A= drainage area
a= 0.8 when A is in km2 or
1.0 when A is in square miles

• Method 3: Extend the recession curve backward to point E below the

inflection point. Connect A to E by a straight line or arbitrary shape.
Separation by Arbitrary Approach
Separation by Arbitrary Approach
***The first step in the hydrograph analysis is to separate the baseflow and direct runoff hydrograph.

1. The hydrograph is plotted with discharge on the y-

axis and the corresponding time on the x-axis.

Method 1: Join point A, the beginning of direct runoff, to

point B, the end of direct runoff. Both points are selected
by judgment.

Method 2: Extend the recession curve before the storm up

to point C below the peak. Joint point C to point D,
computed from eq

N=0.8A0.2 Method 3: Extend the recession curve

N=0.8(6500)0.2 backward to point E. Joint point E to
N=4.6days≈5 days point A
Separation by Arbitrary Approach

• Next step is to follow Table 7.3, refer column

average runoff, duration, runoff x Time
• Finally, calculate for Runoff volume and runoff
depth
Rainfall excess
 Excess rainfall
• Rainfall that is neither retained on the land surface nor infiltrated into
the soil
• Graph of excess rainfall versus time is called excess rainfall hyetograph
• Direct runoff = observed streamflow - baseflow
• Excess rainfall = observed rainfall - abstractions
• Abstractions/losses – difference between total rainfall hyetograph and
excess rainfall hyetograph
f-index
• f-index: Constant rate of abstraction yielding excess rainfall
hyetograph with depth equal to depth of direct runoff
• Used to compute excess rainfall hyetograph when observed rainfall
and streamflow data are available
 f-index method
• Goal: pick t, and adjust value of
M to satisfy the equation M

• Steps rd   Rm  ft 

m 1
1. Estimate baseflow
rd  depth of direct runoff
2. DRH = streamflow hydrograph –
baseflow Rm  observed rainfall
3. Compute rd, rd = Vd/watershed area f  Phi index
4. Adjust M until you get a satisfactory M  # intervals of rainfall
value of f contributing to driect runoff
5. ERH = Rm - ft t  time interval
 Example
Time Observed Have precipitation and streamflow data, need to estimate losses
Rain Flow
in cfs 12000 0

8:30 203 0.5

9:00 0.15 246 1

10000
9:30 0.26 283 1.5

2
10:00 1.33 828
8000

Streamflow (cfs)
2.5
10:30 2.2 2323
11:00 0.2 5697
6000
11:30 0.09 9531
12:00 11025
4000
12:30 8234
1:00 4321
2000
1:30 2246
2:00 1802
0
2:30 1230 7:30 PM 9:00 PM 10:30 PM 12:00 AM 1:30 AM 3:00 AM 4:30 AM 6:00 AM

3:00 713 Time

3:30 394
4:00 354 No direct runoff until after 9:30
4:30 303
And little precip after 11:00
Basin area A = 7.03 mi2
Example (Cont.)
• Estimate baseflow (straight line method)
• Constant = 400 cfs
12000

10000

8000
Streamflow (cfs)

6000

4000

2000

0
7:30 PM 9:00 PM 10:30 PM 12:00 AM 1:30 AM 3:00 AM 4:30 AM 6:00 AM

Time baseflow
Example (Cont.)
Direct
• Calculate Direct Runoff Time Observed
Rain Flow
Runoff

Hydrograph 8:30
in
0.15
cfs
203
cfs

• Subtract 400 cfs 9:00 0.26 246

9:30 1.33 283
10:00 2.2 828 428
10:30 2.08 2323 1923
11:00 0.2 5697 5297
11:30 0.09 9531 9131
12:00 11025 10625
12:30 8234 7834
1:00 4321 3921
1:30 2246 1846
2:00 1802 1402
2:30 1230 830
3:00 713 313
3:30 394
4:00 354 43550
4:30 303

Total = 43,550 cfs

Example (Cont.)
• Compute volume of direct runoff
11 11
Vd   Qn t  t  Qn
n 1 n 1
 3600s/hr * 0.5 hr * 43,550 ft 3 /s
 7.839*107 ft 3

• Compute depth of direct runoff

Vd
rd 
A
7.839*107 ft 3

7.03 mi * 52802 ft 2
 0.4 ft
 4.80 in
 • Goal: pick t, and adjust
value of M to satisfy the
equation
Example (Cont.) • Steps
1. Estimate baseflow
2. DRH = streamflow
• Neglect all precipitation intervals that occur before the hydrograph – baseflow
onset of direct runoff (before 9:30) 3. Compute rd, rd =
• Select Rm as the precipitation values in the 1.5 hour period Vd/watershed area
from 10:00 – 11:30 4. Adjust M until you get a
satisfactory value of f
5. ERH = Rm - ft
M
rd    Rm  ft  rd  4.80 in
m 1
4.80  (1.33  2.20  2.08  f * 3 * 0.5)

f  0.54 in

ft  0.27 in
Example (Cont.)
Direct Excess
Time Observed Runoff Rainfall
Rain Flow
in cfs cfs in
0

ft=0.27
12000
8:30 0.15 203
9:00 0.26 246 0.5

9:30 1.33 283 1

10000
10:00 2.2 828 428 1.06
1.5
10:30 2.08 2323 1923 1.93
11:00 0.2 5697 5297 1.81 2
8000

Streamflow (cfs)
11:30 0.09 9531 9131 2.5
12:00 11025 10625
12:30 8234 7834
6000
1:00 4321 3921
1:30 2246 1846
2:00 1802 1402
4000
2:30 1230 830
3:00 713 313
3:30 394
2000
4:00 354 43550
4:30 303
0
7:30 PM 9:00 PM 10:30 PM 12:00 AM 1:30 AM 3:00 AM 4:30 AM 6:00 AM

Time
Assignment 1
• Find differences between the method of straight line
1) Using semilog paper
2) With normal graph paper
Time-Area Method
• An interesting way to understand how rainfall excess is converted into
a hydrograph is to use the concept of time-area histogram.
• This method assumes that the outflow hydrograph results from pure
translation of direct runoff to the outlet, at uniform velocity, ignoring
any storage effects in the watershed.
• This relationship is defined by dividing a watershed into subareas with
distinct runoff translation times to the outlet.
• The subareas are delineated with isochrones of equal translation time
numbered upstream from the outlet.
Time-Area Method
Time-Area Method
Time-Area Method
Time-Area Method
Noted that, Rainfall
intensity R=0.5in./hr
And 1ac-in./hr ≈1cfs
ac (area) in. is depth
Time-Area Method
R1x A4

R1x A3
R1x A2

R1x A1
 • rainfall excess is
converted into a
Time-Area Method hydrograph with
concept of time-area
histogram.
• In this example,
rainfall of uniform
intensity is distributed
over the watershed
area, water will first
flows from area
immediately adjacent
to outlet and the then
follows by
contributing areas