Feedback Control System Disturbance Controlled variable Input Energy PlanuProce and/or Material Sensor (Measuring Element) Level Value of controlledSSNN0D Module Contents General Principles of Measurement Systems Introduction to measurement systems Functional elements of an instrument Classification of instruments Input-output configurations of instruments Performance characteristics of instruments > Static characteristics > Dynamic characteristics Error analysis: measurements are always in error B. Transducer Elements SASS Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) Resistance strain gauges Capacitive type transducers Piezoelectric transducersModule Contents (Cont’d) C. Specialized Measurement Systems Pressure measurement Temperature measurement Flow measurement Level measurement D. Control Valve & Instrumentation Diagram Control valve: construction/working principle What is an Instrumentation Diagram Symbols used in an Instrumentation Diagram How to interpret an Instrumentation DiagramN.S... Measurement Measurement is an essential activity in every branch of science and technology. Measurement means quantification of a parameter. A measuring instrument is a device that determines the value of a quantity or condition An instrument converts a physical or chemical plant condition (e.g. heat, pressure. light) to a signal (often electrical) that can be measured or interpreted. A Simple Instrument Model: Measurement variable Measured value Mecruree of the variable Measured —_—___ — medium x a Input OutputThe Purpose of Measurement when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you can not measure it, when you can not express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind’ Lord Kelvin In a process industry we may (and we will) ask: Q Whats the temperature in the reactor or furnace or reboiler? Q What is the flow rate of a process fluid in a pipe? Level in storage tank? Q What is the concentration in the product stream? The fundamental purpose of measurements in industrial manufacturing and processing is to obtain a numerical value (generally we are interested in quantification) corresponding to the variable being measured so that we can determine (and improve) the quality of a product or the efficiency of production The process operations should be profitable and safe for human, environment and equipmentNE Types of Measurement Applications Application of any measurement can usually be put into one of these categories: 1. Monitoring of Processes and Operations Measure and display: keep track of some quantity or condition -- Thermometers, barometers, radars simply indicate weather condition No contro! action is taken — ordinarily Homely example: Water/electric meter keeps track of water/electricity used 2. Control of Processes and Operations Most important applications Refers to automatic control and has been the topic of discussion so far 3. Experimental Engineering Analysis Test the validity of predictions from theories Develop mode! from raw data collected using instruments Characterization of materials, devices etc— Direct/Indirect Measurement Direct measurement: We compare directly the parameter that we intend to measure with an accepted standard. Example: measuring the length of a wooden block by a scale Indirect measurement: We measure (infer) a parameter by measuring another parameter which is more convenient to measure: Example. Task: Find out how many bacteria are there in a tube Direct measurement: Spread the bacteria out on a microscope slide and count them one by one. Indirect measurement: Use a spectrophotometer. A spectrophotometer works by shining light in one side of a tube and measuring how eI riuch of light passes through to the other aide. More light is always ) passing through means there is less bacteria in the tube. eter ae Another way: measure how much substrate (food) the possible or _/ bacteria consume in a certain amount of time. Higher the convenient consumption rate, higher the bacteria count.Direct/Indirect Measurement Direct measurement: We compare directly the parameter that we intend to measure with an accepted standard. Example: measuring the length of a wooden block by a scale Indirect measurement: We measure (infer) a parameter by measuring another parameter which is more convenient to measure: Example. Task: Find out how many bacteria are there in a tube Direct measurement: Spread the bacteria out on a microscope slide and count them one by one. Indirect measurement: Use a spectrophotometer. A spectrophotometer works by 3 = shining light in one side of a tube and measuring how Direct ~ rcacdtersert much of light passes through to the other side. More light is always passing through means there is less bacteria in the tube. ROS ee Another way: measure how much substrate (food) the not always f possible or bacteria consume in a certain amount of time. Higher the convenient A consumption rate, higher the bacteria count.LE Functions of an Instrument The following functions may be found in an instrument (in any combination) Transmitting: Instrument conveys information concerning the measured quantity over some distance to a remote point (Telephone) Signaling: Instrument indicates the general value or range of values of its measured quantity (Grocers scale) Registering: Instrument merely indicates, by numbers or some other symbol of discrete increments, the value of some quantity (Water meter) Indicating: Instrument indicates the value of the measured quantity using a calibrated pointer and scale (commonly used pressure gauge) Recording: Instrument keeps a written record of the measured quantity usually against timeFunctional Elements + Aconcept to describe the operation of an instrument in a generalized way. + An instrument consist of several elements. These elements perform prescribed functions in converting a quantity or condition (measuring medium) into a corresponding indication (measured value) + If we examine various physical instruments with a view toward generalization, we may be able to identify a set of elements that are similar with regard to their function: we call these elements functional elements. + An instrument can thus be broken down to a limited number of functional elements + How do we breakdown an instrument? It can be done in a number of ways!Functional Elements (Cont’d) Scheme 1 Measured Suantty a paee) Conditioning Measurana | Element Element Date [Bate Signal osserver +————_ Presentation Processing Output | Element Element Sensing Element: Interacts with the process, produces an output related to process variable being measured (Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature, Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain) Signal Conditioning Element: Converts output of sensing element to a form more suitable for further processing, usually, DC voltage/current. (amplifier converts millivolts to volts, oscillator converts an impedance change into a variable frequency voltage) Signal Processing Element: Converts above signal to a form more suitable for presentation (Analog-to-Digital converter, Microcomputer) Data Presentation Element: Pointer & Scale, Chart recorder, Visual Display Unitad Ref: Doebelin ect] Crug Primary Sensing BYCCOMCUCME clement eat] forte) feo Output pee Se ace Peace ee ha rete iets Variable Manipulation Variable Conversion clement Element Data Presentation Data Transmission Element Element Data Storage/Playback ear’i enbe, — |{ > ||—> ~seale T Bourdon Poy @ given Bourdon ee The 7 Tib oleflectim oC Pressene deiag appliesPressuve Theymometey Pointer Sule Data eee eee ntA Simble Prvecsuve henge Shring > Piston Rd 4 Pointerd Dron Sole i Fluid Preccnve ‘ LinkegClassification of Instruments Classification on the basis of energy consideration: + Passive Instruments: eM aor ae Nee NaS aM eee LE — Self-operated instruments See te ARETE ac RCC Maa ouch Ey ST ent DM rt aN OR ares Cot un mae te 2 eS Instruments: Peete eee ats ee en ey meer tea he eR Sos ei Se eS ete eeu CU ee Cece ee eerrarsClassification of Instruments Classification on the basis of Analog and Digital mode of operation: - Analog Types: Se eine ene eee eee — They present the information about the measured variable in the form of Petes eneatrT eee eter ma its + Digital Types: SSS RU ee Rel ee HRS ok DetClassification of Instruments Operation on a null or deflection principle: - Deflection Types: eee aC a eS Ra ee ane See ee er re aN ret Re ete ese aoe Nee ee Matsa ae: tet ae ea RN rte Ts ene ee eae eee ai aoe oe ee ae ne ecole an coo + Null Types: a rere eee een een Se Re aeons Sei aie rc aC ee coat cg faeaeeta tetris Se MRS ee es Mo So Ue Ca eb eels [oe - Note: eto arena Cater Rone Coe > In a Null type Instrument, the effect produced by the measuring quantity can be eek eT ULE Ne ee a a Cod te oR Cee IIe$ prity printer Sele Deflacininfe Nei it masoiy inchwrnentONG AYAUAT Eoul am beam balance,Dead weight Precsuve gauge gtandad weighty cb Platform Y qt Fluid W Dyessuvees Classification of Instruments + Contacting Types: — Physical contact of the instrument with measuring medium is necessary SMR eee ele is bg ol = Example: eee eee » Pressure gauge * Non-contacting Types: eee eeu keg etek eerie Tits etre » Optical pyrometer or radiation pyrometer for measurement of DO Cea Lee Se eee eeeInput-Output Configuration of Instruments for NR OO Rea Re ate am a eos ld ee ae Tea Soe eo aaa aaa a arsed (onirerg D fo Teco al eT Meo RC aR Toe See tomo ae eae oR aa Maras Cesta h ot moti) eeu R a See oR Ga Citr Nacsa Moa Cs Pee Reteg tte eee Me alae oO ot Root a ete eon a Cees iiaeticy Seen IollVireM eSe S Roe ae oe a RM aN cua R Mist ect ae teem: cet Rat Mia cit Mia ttInput-Output Configuration of ats tava va [oral 10 a ore miee ta Seutiag Cretan nn Final Output cc ia ———s or ee eat ta Pret em nmInput-Output Configuration of Instruments WT Rial else UL nes Output, O Instrument/Sensor Tec cuat Ria saa a Output nN i fe} rsa Ra te eee esas aresExamples of Desired, Interfering and Modifying Inputs Strain Gauge: Measures strain of a specimen ee Ra eee) a= Ca RL ST eg Ren Rae Ue i een en eee ane gee ad eee ae Reece RR a te Mc Re a Cera eet eee eae (ie Rinne ee Cue nae Dee Rie eee RO akin a neta ioe) IVE a re ee ere ea ae ao ey Coe rte igen sc es Gauge Factor x Gauge resistance when unstrained = Unit strainDécived Iv U- Tube ynanomereY Pp 7 he (-%) pam Py eeExamples of Desired, Interfering and Modifying Inputs Strain Gauge: Measures strain of a specimen ee Ra eee) a= agar Be eg eRe Ree Ue eee en en eee ane gees ee ae Ree cae RC a cr Mc Rea a Cra et eee ae (ia ini eee Clue na aed Cees ee RO anion ae aster inns) AVE a eC cee eer ee ea a ea ey ot eee ecu is fore te eer We Ect a Rac n ie a Meat a)Corrective Measure for Undesired Inputs Method of Signal Filtering: er oe eee re Su Ma Marty ea ete ae he ee CROCE CRC tise ar [ee BT) ———_ Leia Rta ei i | trim | falar Output Ee mo Tula RL Tes Aa = EenCorrective Measure for Undesired Inputs Method of Signal Filtering: Output Filtering 7 eR mae oN pono LZR eae a) recreate a1 oa —_—_ TFL (eeeInput & WengSivam Bega eS ——_——— —— cet BaCorrective Measure for Undesired Inputs Ire Ree) Ma es Seg Counter aaa cers (ee ee ee eee ater Ceram tastier Miler ed [oye Rt oe ed TF_D aad re Muu tare) Output aed | TF_i2 Taare eestor Se Sel TEM CarMethod o i Millivltmeter —> crvvernt Semcitive Awi te Arkin est an eo \e Macditying inpak ine Cay aePerformance Characteristics of Instruments How do we describe the quality of measurement? rata te eg eter eee RO a ct Nt Relea Sate a rela er oe ea at aca Lele ae od DR eae ae RA ea ea CSc Meare tears eee eh ee cee ee ee a cee Reve Sea Ree ecto ee ee ee eke arenas Ree RL ee eT ed SUN Ce cog ie Cora oe ae ROT aa ee a Ta under dynamic environment. But we treat them separatelyStatic Characteristics of ae ta atta Static Characteristics “a Ue ate Static Characteristics Seana asus ae el ------- Seay -Static Characteristics of Instruments Static Calibration: Bae geet tog ee Boe eae aa ev leant te Nea eat sae aoe cee React Rca) working range fer eg tan at Asal a iat Mal aaa tg eee a) Persist Rel Sainte ate ei a ame Ret sIg Co Nga aks ie or ee CR rere) Prelate ar aC eee fers SES aati iStatic Characteristics of Instruments * Range: The range of an instrument is the lowest and highest values it can measure within its specification * Span: The span of an instrument is the high end of the Range minus the low end of the Range - Resolution: Resolution is the smallest amount of input signal change that the instrument can detect reliably Seer RSet eee eee Rta Raa oe la eer eee ea erent ne gee eo Instruments span: b—a@ DS To) cea Ea Tole lo Teale cee laal ial eee a ar lace ale gle ele ae) Nee eet ea Coe Leste) disturbances and possible failuresStatic Characteristics of Instruments Accuracy: Accuracy of a measurement describes how close the eee ie een rR Me ae ie Lohr Ce ms eo Mar aces ee OR Eee Me OR hE ee manly eS Read Cec s (Measured Value) — (TrueValue) TrueValue ee Recta (Measured Value rueValue 1 1 due) — (1 ann Maximum ScaleValueStatic Characteristics of Instruments ete eR ae ea a Ri ea a RR Rg SOC me Uitte e BISON eS eee a aCe) BCA te Dag Coe ar Ree erica) dg oie) BASS Na a OR ee oe Rete ee eect elated Dialed Cae ie tod See aS Re a Ror ie aad proceed ae Re se Ra ay Rene ects] Hysteresis: The characteristics loop we find when the instrument is eRe aR Meet ena a Re a a ee or tee od friction or backlash.Static Characteristics of Instruments See ren ae a Sona ee aera Olam Cee er Ria ue ge RCM Care ce Se Met aoe Static error is expressed as +a units or —@ units. SORTS i ee ree) Ce ee ee em ee nee eC Ree SON Ten oo eS eciny See te eas Sem Nee RUC aS ia)i Ne aN a a RT eee Ree eel d within a given accuracy Shooting target Poor P Good Av AStatic Characteristics of Instruments See oot Uae ZiN + Ratio of change in the output (response) of instrument to a change of input or eect Urs BES Ree ati as Serie SU Moc ee ga al Cn ee increases. Therefore, the unit of sensitivity for Resistance Thermometer is Ohm/°C. ee Mee pee oe ae a ae a temperature changes by 10°C, it’s sensitivity = 1 mm/°C Most —~> Sensitive, biliaal Cen Au a Taro InputStatic Characteristics of Instruments ae ae The output of a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) is recorded as follows. Calculate the sensitivity of the RTD. Output(Ohm) 200 400 300 600 Ota 200 500 eT UN Geer eT) aa Tica Slope of graph = (400-200) ohm/ (200-100) °c = 2 ohmic ROR Mae ee Mae aL te ea RR Cua etic eee Mem GE RRC Um eke PCR Ma UC uaa tS e019 aol ee olga yinosStatic Characteristics of Instruments eee re dee Ce a RU Raga foe aes ea toa Hysteresis: The characteristics loop we find when the instrument is eRe eect ena a eRe a el a ere od friction or backlash. Hysteresis ErrorStatic Characteristics of Instruments Drift: Change in the indicated reading of an instrument over time POUR Moth Narr ecg Pee Ra Maer eM ate tel Ste aa oC aa rte an tats slippage) Sa ona OMe Wee eRe ale aaa a Re eT lad from zero upward changes a proportional amount (Cause: Pre RoarleC MS ate Rea Ue tector) Zonal drift (zero + span drift):Scale reading Characteristic with zero ‘ante Pressure Scale reading reading Characteristic with ‘senestvty dit ‘Nominal character Characteristic with zero drift and sensitivity deit Nominal characteristic PressureDynamic Characteristics of atta aly Sear elie tection ee ee eee hae aoe enc eto ake te ear aa eee neo Tl eel Teen aS oS h an instrument responds to changes in the measurand EES ONE T o naa Cari) Cra eR Rau at ero ate a eet eR UL Re ate a ONE CC cree) erie Ren tetera Ooi mer ie taco ee aad ae) CoS as Satepe OR INA Ci aC a erg Cee ea ei ere eR te Rete Rte at as Pm MLM ToT aR le ara M a eC OZT YI Rare oTKnown input: Step, Ramp, Sinusoidal etc d” Fd 44 a, at n n Dodin Teeter Input, qin(t) Output, qo(t) INSTRUMENT >