NPN Transistor and circuits

VC
.
Collector(C ) IC

IB +
N
VCE
P + _
VB
VBE _
Base ( B)
N

IE
Emitter( E )
VE

IE = I C + I B

VCE =VC –VE >0

VBE = VB – VE >0
 PN P Transistor
VC
.
Collector(C ) IC

IB _
P
-VCE
_
N VB +
-VBE
Base ( B)
P +
IE
Emitter( E )
VE

IE = I C + I B

VCE =VC –VE <0

VBE = VB – VE <0
Transistor characteristics

for IB = 80 µA
for IB = 70 µA

for IB = 60 µA

for IB = 50 µA
for IB = 40 µA

for IB = 30 µA
for IB = 20 µA
for IB = 10 µA
 PNP Transistor
.
Linear or Active

for IB = 80 µA
Region

IB = 70 µA

IB = 60 µA

for IB = 50 µA

Saturation region IB = 40 µA

for IB = 30 µA

for IB = 20 µA

for IB = 10 µA
IB =0 A

Cut-off region
 How to ensure that a transistor is in saturation(Example)
• The transistor chosen is: 2N3904
• Look into the specifications handbook for the necessary parameters:
1. Maximum collector current(continuous) Ic(max) = 200mA
2. VCE(SAT) = 0.2 V
3. hFE = β =100 (depending on the current and many other things)
10V

1k

10k
VIN
. The Bipolar Transistor Switch
VC
VC VC
IC RC RC
RC IC = 0
VIN < 0.7V VIN > 0.7V
IB C
+ VOUT = VC VOUT =0
RB +
B VCE 0.7V IE =
+ -
+ - VOUT IB +IC
VIN VBE E _
IE

OFF ON
(CUT OFF STATE) (SATUTRATED STATE)
 How to switch an LED On and Off using a transistor
• Objective: Turn an LED On and Off with a digital device, 5V
with an output voltage of either 0 V or 5V and a maximum
output current of 5mA. IC RC

• The LED requires 40 to 50 mA to glow brightly, known from

its specifications.
• A transistor based switching circuit using 2N3094 npn
needs to be designed. 5V RB
• The design needs fixing values for RC and RB IB
suitably to meet the needed currents IC and IB .
 Guidelines for making a transistor switch
• The collector must be more positive than the base or emitter.

• To be ON, the base-to-emitter voltage must be at least 0.7V.

• There are maximum values of IC ,IB and VCE that must be calculated
and held to specifications.

• The collector current IC is independent of base current IB when the

transistor is saturated, but there must be enough base current to
ensure saturation.

• Be careful that the base-to-emitter voltage is not too large , resulting

in excess base current. That is why the transistor should not be driven
directly from a voltage source.
 How to ensure that a transistor is in saturation(Example)
• The transistor chosen is: 2N3904
• Look into the specifications handbook for the necessary parameters:
1. Maximum collector current(continuous) Ic(max) = 200mA
2. VCE(SAT) = 0.2 V
3. hFE = β =100 (depending on the current and many other things)
10V

1k

VIN 10k
Darlington Pairs

E
 Phototransistor and opto-isolator
• The junction between the base and emitter
acts as a ‘photodiode’. VS
• It conducts in the presence of light
Vout
• An ‘opto-isolator’:
• An opto-isolator is composed of an LED and a
Phototransistor separated by a small gap.
• The light emitted by the LED causes current flow
in the phototransistor cicuit.
• This output circuit has a different ground
reference and the supply voltage Vs can be Vin VS
chosen to establish a desired output voltage range.
Vout
• The opto-isolator creates a state of electrical isolation
between the input and output circuits by transmitting
the signal optically rather than through an electrical
Connection.
• The components of output circuit are protected
against damage due to excessive input voltages.
 Opto-interrupters
R2 = 1K Ω
.
R1 =200 Ω
+
+
5V VOUT
_
_
 Circuit- to –switch Power
VS
*Suppose we have a digital device 5V

LOAD
Resistor RP
delivering a binary output 0 and1.

Pull-up
*This represents the ‘open-collector output’ TTL IC
of the output stage transistor of the device. Open
*This can sink in only a very small current in collector
Power
output
the milli-amp range. MOSFET

Problem: How can we interface the binary output

Output
to control the current to a load that may require a Transistor
current of many amps?
Solution: A resistor RP called “Pull-up Resistor” is
connected to the collector lead to complete the digital
output circuit. It “pulls-up” the the collector to a dc power sorce (In this case +5V ).
*It results in 0V at the gate when the output transistor is on and 5V when it is off.
*To drive a load with a large current not available from the digital output, we have
decided to use a MOSFET power transistor to switch a different power supply VS .
*This problem arises whenever we interface from digital or microprocessor systems to
sensors and actuators.
 Impedance matching
• When connecting different devices
and circuits together, one needs to Function Generator

resistance

High Impedance
Take care of ‘Impedance matching’. Output Amplifier

50Ω Termination
• This is done through proper
‘signal termination’.For example,

Network
50Ω
placing 50Ω termination resistance Output impedance
in parallel with the higher impedance
network helps match the receiving
network’s inputimpedance to the signal generator’s output impedance.
• If we do not match the impedances,a high impedance network will
reflect frequency components of the driving circuit, especially the high frequency
components.
Impedance matching----String analogy: Thin string Thick string

Reflected wave Transmitted wave

 Impedance matching
Matching impedance to transfer “maximum power” source
to a “load” from a “source”:

Load Resistance
Ri
+ +
VS RL
 Voltage and Current sources
Voltmeters and Ammeters
• An ideal voltage source has zero output resistance (impedance)and
can supply infinite current.
• An ideal current source has infinite output resistance
(impedance)and can supply infinite voltage
• An ideal voltmeter has infinite input resistance (impedance)and
draws no current.
• An ideal Ammeter has zero input resistance (impedance) and no
voltage drop across it.
• ** Real sources and meters have terminal characteristics that are
somewhat different from the ideal cases.
• **The terminal characteristics of real sources and meters can be
modeled using ideal sources and meters with their associated input
and output resistances(impedances)
 Real voltage source
• A “real” voltage source can be modeled as an ideal voltage source in
series with a resistance called “output impedance” of the device.
• When load is attached to the device
and current flows, the output voltage VOUT Rout
Output impedance +
Will be different from the ideal source voltage VS +
due to voltage division. VS VOUT
Ideal Voltage
• The output impedance of most commercially source
_
available voltage sources (e.g. Power supplies) is
very small, usually a fraction of an Ohm. Real Voltage source with
output impedance
• However, the output impedance can be important
when driving a circuit with small resistance since the impedance also
adds to the resistance of the circuit.
 Real Current Source
• A “real” current source can be modeled as an ideal current source in
parallel with an output impedance.
• When a load is attached to the source,
IOUT
the source current IS divides between the
IS
output impedance and the load. Rout
Ideal
• The output impedance of most commercially current Output
source impedance
available current sources is very large, minimizing
the current division effect. Real current source with
• However, this impedance can be important output impedance

when driving a circuit with a large resistance.

 Real Ammeter
• A “real” ammeter can be modeled I Input Impedance
in Rin
As an ideal ammeter in series with a I
+ VR _
resistance called “inut Impedance”of Ideal
Ammeter
the device.
• The input impedance of most of the commercially available
ammeters is very small, minimizing the voltage drop VR added
in the circuit.
• However, this resistance can be important when making a
current measurement through a circuit branch with small
resistance since the output impedance adds to the resistance
of the branch.
 Real Voltmeter
• A ‘real’ voltmeter can be modeled as
an ideal voltmeter in parallel with an input +

impedance
Impedance. Vin

Input
Rin V
• The input impedance of most commercially Ideal
voltmeter
available voltmeters (e.g. an oscilloscope or _
multimeter ) is usually very large, usually of
the order of 1 to 10 MΩ.
• However, this resistance must be considered while making voltage
measurement across a circuit branch with large resistance since the
parallel combination of the meter input impedance with the
resistance of the circuit branch would result in significant error in the
measured value.
 Voltage Regulator IC LM78XX
• The three terminal regulator IC LM78XX is an easy to use
device that meets regulated power supply demands.
• The last two digits XX specify a voltage with standard
values: 5,(05),12,15V
• Using a regulator such as Unregulated
input LM7815C
15V
the LM7815C, a well regulated (17.7 to 35V)
Regulated
output
15V source is easy to create as shown.
• The 78XX can deliver up to 1amp of current and is
internally protected from overload.
• The 78XX series of regulators have complementary 79XX
series values for the design of +/- voltage supplies.
• These three-terminal voltage regulators are accurate, reject ripple on
the input, reject voltage spikes, have roughly 0.1% regulation and are
quite stable, making them very useful for mechatronic system design.
 Voltage Regulator IC 317L
• Sometimes we may need a regulated voltage source with a
value not provided in manufacturer’s standard sequence.
• Then we may use a
three -terminal regulator Unregulated LM317L Regulated
R1
Input voltage Output
designed to be adjustable (1.2 to 37V) voltage
10μF
by the addition of external R2
external resistors.
• The LM317L can provide an adjustable output with the
addition of two external resistors as shown.
• The output voltage is given by:
• These adjustable regulators are available in higher current
and voltage ratings
 Schmitt Trigger
• In some applications, digital
High Threshold
pulses may not exhibit sharp 5V
Input
edges. Input output
0V
• Instead, the signal Low
may ramp from 0 to 5V over Threshold
Schematic output
a finite period of time. symbol
• It may do so in a noisy and
random fashion as shown in the figure.
• The “Schmitt trigger” is a device that can convert such a signal into a
sharp pulse using the threshold hysteresis effect as shown.
• The output goes high when the input exceeds the high threshold and
remains high till the input falls below the low threshold.
• The hysteresis between the low and high thresholds results in the
distinct edges in the output.
• Six Schmitt triggers are usually packaged on a single IC.
• Example: LM7414
The 555 Timer
 The 555 Timer
• The 555integrated circuit is known as the “time machine”.
• It performs a wide variety of timing tasks
• It is a combination of both digital and analog circuits.
• Applications for the 555 include bounce-free switches,
cascaded timers , frequency dividers , voltage-controlled
oscillators, pulse generators , LED flashers and many more…
Monostable multivibrator (one shot or mono-shot)
Vcc

Ra
2/3 Vcc

trigger

1/3 Vcc

Vcc
trigger
0
2/3 Vcc
Capacitor
voltage 0
Vcc
output
0