Bridge Rehabilitation

The reasons leading to deterioration of the existing bridge

stock (which have been in service 20-30 years or more) :

a) increase in traffic flows and weight of vehicles, especially their

axle loads, compared to the period when the bridges have been
designed and constructed,
b) harmful influence of environmental pollution, especially
atmospheric ones, on the performance of structural materials,
c) common use of de-icing agents in countries of moderate climate,
d) low quality structural materials as well as bridge equipment
elements, such as expansion joints, waterproofing membranes,
etc.,
e) limited maintenance program or insufficient standard of
maintenance,
f) structural and material solutions particularly sensitive to damage
produced by both traffic loads and environmental factors.
 A structurally deficient bridge is one whose
components may have deteriorated or been damaged,
resulting in restrictions on its use. Apart from the
technical condition problems, a great number of
bridges built many years ago are functionally obsolete.
 Functional obsolescence refers to a bridge's load-
carrying or geometrical charcteristics; e.g., a bridge,
which was designed 40 years ago for lower load levels
or traffic volumes or with inadequate under- or over-
clearance and which now requires restrictions on its
use, is functionally obsolete in spite of its good
technical condition.
In general, however, the bridges are both structurally deficient and
functionally obsolete. Therefore, depending on individual case, the
following remedial actions can be undertaken :

repair,
replacement,
rehabilitation.
strengthening,
modernization.

Repair means to mend, to put into good shape or working order

again, to recondition, to renovate, to restore and to correct. Repair
concerns rather the local damages of structural members or bridge
equipment elements than the overall structure.
Replacement means to substitute, to change and to exchange. Some
elements of bridge structures, mostly equipment elements, are usually
replaced, e.g., expansion joints, bearings, barriers, etc. Sometimes, the
structural members are also replaced, if necessary, e.g., deck elements,
individual stringers, secondary or bracing elements, etc. Replacing a
whole bridge is considered the last resort in the process of upgrading
the existing infrastructure; it is a drastic measure and possibly the
costliest.

Rehabilitation means to restore, to make suitable, to put back in

good condition, to re-establish on a firm, sound basis, to bring back
to full use, to reinstate, to renew and to revive. Rehabilitation
concerns mostly the whole bridge structure, including its primary
structural members.
Strengthening means to increase load-carrying capacity by adding
more material, additional components (e.g., external prestressing),
and so on.

Modernization is a form of upgrading by adding new features,

e.g., new traffic flow arrangement, new signs, new lighting, new
barriers. This term is commonly applied to structures designed
and constructed prior to availability of these modern features.
However, modernization can also be considered in a wider
meaning. For instance, upgrading of the bridge requires in many
cases its strengthening, new traffic flow arrangement requires
the widening of the bridge deck, and so on.

Moreover, the term retrofitting is used in some situations. Retrofit is

a strengthening procedure applied to an existing structure, not
necessarily although in many cases related to seismic strength. It is
applied usually after it is found that the original design is not
sufficient in light of newly gained experience.
Bridge structures are subjected to many types of loadings and
other influences resulting both from the live loads (mostly traffic
effects) and exposure of the structures to the weather and
environmental effects of various nature.
The factors leading to bridge deterioration can be classified into four
fundamental groups, as follows:
(A) inner factors.
(B) traffic load factors,
(C) weather and environmental factors,
(D) maintenance factors.

Inner factors are immanently connected with the structure itself. It

means that the structure may contain some factors of degradation or
causing special sensitivity to damage, e.g., inadequacy of the design
(including structural system) and building, quality of the materials, the
age, etc.
A bridge structural systems with discontinuous deflection line (e.g., the
bridges of simple span type) are more sensitive to damage from traffic
load than those with continuous deflection line (e.g., the bridges of
continuous span type). This is due to the dynamic effects (impacts)
produced by traffic load in the numerous expansion joints representing
structural discontinuity. For this reason, among others, in many
modern concrete bridges constructed with the use of precast beams,
the structural continuity is provided, mostly by RC roadway slab cast-in-
place.
Traffic load factors are of external nature and are related to the
exploitation conditions. It should be emphasized that the intensity and
speed of the road traffic as well as the concentration of loads by the
heavy vehicles have enormously grown during the last few decades
and therefore, many old bridges are not adapted to support, without
damage, such an evolution, especially because of the evident
increase of dynamic effects.

Weather and environmental factors are of climatic and atmospherical

nature. Some of them (e.g., season and diurnal temperature changes,
rainfalls or wind pressure) may be classified as objective ones, i.e.,
the factors directly independent of human activity in the domain of
bridge engineering, while the others (e.g., atmospheric pollutions,
aggressive chemicals in underground water or in rivers, effects of de-
icing salts on structures) are dependent on human activity in the
bridge engineering itself and in the other domains of technical activity.
Maintenance factors are entirely related to the quality and intensity of
preservation measures, such as anti-corrosive protection, current
conservation works, cleaning, etc. Maintenance is, in many cases, a
decisive factor influencing bridge durability; inadequate routine
maintenance leads, in general, to bridge degradation even if the
structure is well constructed with the use of structural materials and
equipment elements of high quality.
 Classification of factors leading to
bridge deterioration

A. Inner factors; 1. Objective

A..1.1. The age of the bridge structure

A. Inner factors; II. Subjective

A.II.1. Quality of the study
A.II.2. Structural system itself sensitive to damage
A.II.3. Adequacy of the design to the actual service conditions
including geometrica parameters)
A.II.4. Quality of the construction works at every stage
A.II.5. Quality of the structural materials and bridge equipment
elements (e.g., insulation expansion joints,
drainage system elements, etc.)
B. Traffic load factors; II. Subjective (only)
B.II.1. The frequency, speed and concentration of traffic loads
(especially the heavy vehicles)
B.II.2. Dynamic effects (including fatigue damage mostly in
steel bridges)
B.II.3. Car or other accidents on the bridge
B.II.4. Overloading by the heavy vehicles
B.II.5. Impacts produced by the oversized vehicles
C. Weather and environmental factors; 1. Objective
C.I.1. Atmospheric falls (e.g., rainfalls, snowfalls)
C.I.2. Variation of the water level in the rivers, straits, gulfs, etc.
C.I.3. Ice-float run-off and its pressure on bridge piers
C.I.4. Wind pressure and its effects on structural and
secondary bridge elements
C.I.5. The earth movements (including seismic effects)
C.I.6. Diurnal and season variation of ambient temperature
leading to the uniform thermal deformation of
the bridge structures
C.I.7. Direct solar radiation on the bridge and other
thermal effects leading to the nonuniform heat distribution
in the bridge structures
C.I.8. Chloride attack originating from the action of sea water
C. Weather and environmental factors; II. Subjective
C.II.l. Chloride attack originating from the use of de-icing products
(mainly salts) on road under the bridge (cf. Fig. 3.3)
C.II.2. Frost destruction of concrete
C.II.3. Atmospheric falls containing aggressive chemicals
(e.g., "acid rains")
C.II.4. Penetration of CO; from atmosphere (carbonation effect
in concrete)
C.II.5. Aggressive chemicals in rivers and underground water
C.II.6. Vagabond currents (e.g., in bridge structures over the railroads
with electric traction of direct current)
C.II.7. Fire
D. Maintenance factors; II. Subjective (only)
D.II.l. Structural, material and bridge equipment solutions easy or difficult
for maintenance works
D.II.2. Quality of inspection of any type (e.g., cursory, detailed, special
inspections)
D.II.3. Quality of routine maintenance works (e.g., cleaning, repair,
replacement of some elements of bridge equipment, etc.)
D.II.4. Renewal of anti-corrosive protection of structural and other
steel elements
D.II.5. The use of de-icing salts on the bridge roadway itself
D.II.6. Quality of the drainage system and its efficiency
D.II.7. Quality of the pavement on roadway (e.g., roughness, permeability,
etc.) or railway (e.g., geometrical tolerance)
D .11.8. State of pipelines of any types and other installations located on
the bridge
 The steel bridges also have some specific features affecting their
types of damage. The most important damages can be mentioned
by the followings:

1. local loss of stability in overloaded slender structural members

such as bracing elements, ribs, etc.,
2. fracture of structural elements caused by local bending or other
type of loading not taken into account in the design process as
well as initial stresses created during the erection of the structure,
3. fatigue damage of the elements occurring mostly in the vicinity of
the structural notches or discontinuity,
4. corrosion damage of rivets or bolts in the structural joints and
damage due to deformation caused by the welding stresses,
5. brittle fracture due to the imperfections in internal structure of steel
itself or due to very low ambient temperature,
6. improper solutions of structural elements or their joints making the
dewatering difficult.
 In the case of relatively numerous groups of composite bridges in
which the principal elements rely on interaction between structural
steel and reinforced or prestressed concrete deck slab, several
other specific factors leading to deterioration of these structures
can be additionally observed. The most important factors are the
followings:

1. insufficient bearing capacity of the shear connectors (especially in

the support zones) potentially leading to the partial separation
between structural steel and concrete in the contact layer,
2. unpredicted effects of creep and shinkage of concrete potentially
leading to additional longitudinal and transversal displacements of
the structure,
3. corrosion of the upper flanges of the steel girders in the vicinity of
the contact layer with the concrete deck slab; it results from the
very often observed phenomenon that the dew point is reached in
this zone during relatively cold periods and moisture is
accumulated over long time in concrete.
Damage to concrete structures is mainly revealed by cracks of various
types. The cracks themselves are immanently connected with the
brittleness of concrete. However, their width and number are decisive
factors for destruction of the structures.

To evaluate how the cracks are dangerous to bridge durability

and safety, it is necessary to determine the causes leading to
cracks in concrete. The causes depend mostly on the following
three factors concerning the cracks:

1. time of their formation after casting of concrete or construction

of the structure,
2. their external appearance or pattern,
3. their width and number.
 Typical Damage of Concrete Structures

Cause lime of External External Comment

formation appearance appearance and crack
Width (w)

1 Plastic First few Cracks along Cracks can

settlement hours after reinforcing bars. be large
(slump casting Cracks at changes
cracking) in shape of
section

2 Plastic First few Cracking pattern Cracks can

shrinkage hours after or long cracks on be large
casting surface of (w - 2-4
elements cast in mm not
drying conditions
3 Early First few Large cracks at Can be controlled
thermal hours after construction by reinforcement
cracks casting joints in walls. (w <0.4 mm), by
Other cracks limiting of pour
depending on sizes or control of
the nature of temperatur
restraints
4 Shrinkage Several Similar lo See below Usually small, if
monthts bending or (positions 7 and reinforcement is
after tension cracks 8) sufficient
construction (w < 0.4 mm)
5 Corrosion Several Cracks along lhe Initially small
monthts or reinforcement (w <0.2 mm),
years after bars. developing increasing with
construction into spalling time, rust
staining maybe
visible on
concrete
surface in wet
conditions

6 Alkali Several Occurrence in Cracks can be

aggregate years after wet conditions, large (even w >
reaction construction frequently as a 1.0mm)
"map" of cracks,
only with certain
types of
aggregate (i.e.
alkali reactive)
7 Service Depending Small, in general
loading on usage (w < 0.2 mm), if
design for
strength is
satisfactory.
Larger cracks
indicate, in
general, design
falts.

8 Restraints Depending Small, in general

on external (w<0.2 mm), if
influences, reinforcement is
etc. sufficient
 Typical damage to bridge abutment

Illustration Type and cause of damage

1 Damage resulting mainly from leaking

expansion joints.
1 leak on the walls,
2 spall of concrete,
3 impurity of bearing seat.

2 Single, relatively large cracks in certain

parts of abutment
1. cracks in walls with relatively weak
reinforcement resulting from nonuniform
ground settlement,
2. shearing cracks resulting from the lack of
expansion joint or its locking.
 Illustration Type and cause of damage
3 Many relatively small cracks resulting
from shrinkage and insufficient
reinforcement in the surface layers of the
walls as well as from inadequate casting
technology.

4 1. damage to bearing seal resulting

from leaking expansion joint,
inadequate structure of the bearing
or its failure,
2. spalling of concrete due to corrosion
of reinforcement,
3. crack due to insufficient
reinforcement or inadequate casting
technology.
 Typical damage to bridge massive pier
Illustration Type and cause of
damage
1 1. crack in the layers of cast
interruption observed in
the piers with lack of or
too weak reinforcement
2. leaks on the wall

2 1. crack resulting from

shrinkage when the
reinforcement in the
surface layer is too weak
 Illustration Type and cause of
damage
3 1. crack due to “shield effect”
in the pier loaded on its
edges when steel
reinforcement is too weak

4 1. damage to bearing seat

2. leak on the wall- both
observed in the piers
supporting superstructure
with leaking expansion
joints
3. cracks observed in
concrete nn-reinforced
piers.
5 1. crack resulting from
non uniform ground
settlement,
2. spalling of concrete
due to corrosion of
steel reinforcement

6 1. spalling of concrete
cover due to corrosion
of steel
reinforcement,
2. inclination of the pier
due to scour or
nonuniform ground
 Typical Damage to column piers
Illustration Type and cause damage

1 1. Leaks on the capping beam

2. Longitudinal cracks resulting
from corrosion of reinforcing
bars
3. Spalling of concrete cover – all
the above mentioned types of
damage observed in the piers
located below leaking expansion
joints in superstructure

2 1. Crack resulting from overloading

of the capping beam
3 Inclination of the column due to
failure of the foundation or too weak
fixation of precast column in its base.
Typical Damage of Concrete Bridge Superstructures

Typical damage to RC and PC bridge girder

Illustration Cause of damage

1. 1 1. crack resulting from corrosion of
steel reinforcement; too thin
concrete cover or its low quality.

2 1. leaking expansion joints,

2. leaks, deteriorated concrete,
3. spalls of concrete due to
corrosion of reinforcement
3 1. cracks due to shrinkage (if their
3 height is more than half of
girder depth).

4 1. cracks in 7"nes of extremal

bending moments,
2. cracks produced by the principal
tensile stresses in the vicinity of
supporting zones.
5 1. cracks in parapet beams cast in
the same stage with the girder.

6 1. damage resulting from impact

produced by oversized vehicle.
7 1. leaking expansion joints,
2. corrosion of tendon anchorages,
3. corrosion of tendons without
external signs due to low quality
of grouting of the ducts
8 1. leak resulting from permeable
insulation on the deck slab,
2. crack due to corrosion of the
tendon,
3. spall of concrete and uncovered
tendon due to corrosion.

9 1. cracks resulting from

decompression effect,
2. cracks in anchorage zone due to
too weak reinforcement in this
zone.
 Typical damage to PC box-girders.

Illustration Cause and type of damage

1 Influence of bending due to overloading

accompanied in some cases by dynamic
effects. Insufficient prestressing or too large
loss in prestressing force.

Thermal effects. Main cracks in or near the

segment joints in segmental box-girders.
Additional cracks may occur as microcracks.
Vertical cracks in webs and transversal
ones in bottom flange.

Large cracks (w > 3 mm) are usually

considered as the damaged state of the
structure. Time of formation after drastic
overloading or insufficient prestressing
after a short time of service.
2 Casting by stages. Shrinkage of
fresh concrete is restrained by the
hardened concrete of the former
casting stage. Vertical cracks in
webs. In some cases, transversal
cracks at top flange also occurred.

Crack width w < 0.3 mm

(microcracks usually). Time of
formation short time after casting.

Cracks often close

after prestressing.
3 Thermal effects. Heating surface by
solar radiation and cooling of
bottom flange (e.g., by the wind).
Nonuniform distribution of stresses
in the cross sections of the girder.

Underestimation of thermal
expansion and contraction as well
as shrinkage effects in the case of
casting by stages. In the case of
relatively thin bottom flanges (a)
transversal cracks in the flange in
the middle of the girder span.

In the case of relatively thin webs

(b) cracks along girder joints. Crack
width w < 1 mm (usually). Time of
formation shrinkage effects short
time after casting, thermal effects
during the service of the bridge.
4 Shear. Overloading. Bridge bearing
located directly below the
diaphragm and the web.

Diagonal shear cracks in webs.

Cracks can be large in some cases
(w > I mm).

Time of formation after

overloading, often after the first one
5 Shear. Overloading. Bridge bearing
located not directly below the web
causes strong shear stresses in the
diaphragm.

Diagonal shear cracking in the web

and the diaphragm. Cracks can be
large (w > I mm).

Time of formation after overloading,

often after the first one.
6 Shear. Overloading. Bridge bearing
located not directly below the web
causes strong shear stresses in the
diaphragm.

Diagonal shear cracking in the web

and the diaphragm. Cracks can be
large (w > 1 mm).

Time of formation after overloading,

often after the first one.
7 Structural imperfections. Local
concentrated stresses under
anchorage blister inside the box-
girder.

Bottom flange too thin. Too small

curvature of tendon between
anchorage blister and flange
produces concentrated pressure on
concrete at the toe of blister. Near
anchorage blister, concentrated
cracks in the flange propagating to
the web.

The cracks can be large, mostly w

> 1 mm. Possible spalling of
concrete at the end of anchorage
blister. Time of formation during
the service of the bridge, seldom
directly after prestressing.
8 Structural imperfections. The
tendon ducts are executed with
insufficient number of supporting
chairs or are deflected of any other
reason.

Cracks due to curvature of tendons.

Soffit cracks in bottom flange.
Longitudinal cracks in the webs.

Cracks mostly narrow (w < I mm ).

Laminar cracking or spalling due to
tendon imperfections, e.g., change
of angle, break of duct profile, etc.

Time of formation after

prestressing, after a relatively short
time of service.
9 Structural imperfections. Effects of
vertical curvature of tendons.

Longitudinal compressive stresses

induce a downward radial forces in
the bottom flange, where the
longitudinal cracks may occur.

Cracks can also occur al the

junction of the bottom flange and
the web and in the web itself.
Cracks mostly narrow (w < 1 mm)
but can be larger in some cases (w
> 1 mm).
Typical damage to RC bridge deck. 1) deck slab, 2) girder, 3) reinforcement of
the girder, 4) leaks on the bottom surface of the deck slab, 5) spall of concrete
cover, 6) cracks due to overloading of the deck slab, 7) cracks due to corrosion
of reinforcing bars.
Typical damage observed in paved roadway on the concrete bridges 1. transversal
cracks in pavement, 2. contamination along the curbs, 3. losses and defects in
pavement, 4. cracks in the expansion joint areas, 5. longitudinal cracks in pavement,
6. deterioration and leakage near the curbs, 7. pavement deformation
(washboarding), 8. pavement deformation in the form of "wheel tracks", 9. pavement
deterioration due to too weak substrate, 10 roughness in pavement in the approach
zones due to the lack of intermediate slab between span and abutment or caused by
the settlement of embankment.
Typical Damage of Steel and Composite Bridge Superstructures
1. surface corrosion, causing uniform destruction of relatively large surface of
structural steel and leading to reduction of cross-sections in the structural
members,

2. pitting corrosion, occurring on very small surfaces (therefore, its effects are
difficult to detect in many cases), developing deeply inside the steel and leading,
in general, to the local concentration of the stresses,

3. crevice corrosion, occurring in the contact layer between two elements of the
same type of steel (e.g., in bolted reinforcement plates, splice plates, gusset
plates, etc.) and leading to destruction by tear forces resulting from swelling
effects of corrosion products. This type of corrosion is in many cases very difficult
to detect its harmful effects because it occurs in not easily accessible places in the
bridge structure,

4. galvanic corrosion, usually occurring in the joint of two different types of steel or
metals (e.g., in welded, screw, bolt or riveted joints where so-called galvanic cell
can be formed) and leading to local material destruction, usually difficult for
detection,

5. stress corrosion, occurring mostly in the cables in suspension or cable-stayed

bridges, relatively seldom in structural elements of bridges constructed of carbon
steel. Stress corrosion together with pitting and crevice ones are sometimes
considered as so-called fatigue corrosion
Mechanisms of surface corrosion of structural steel :

Basic processes - anode: 2Fe → 2Fe++ + 4e-,

cathode: O2 + 2H2O +4e- → 4(OH)- .
Examples of corrosion products in case of limited amount of oxygen:
Fe++ + 2(OH)- → Fe(OH)2,
in case of more free access of oxygen: 2Fe++ + 4(OH)- + ½ O2 +
(n+l)H2O → 2Fe(OH)3 x nH2O 4Fe++ + 3O2→ 2Fe2O3.
Mechanisms of crevice corrosion processes in contact layer
between two elements of structural steel members
Mechanisms of corrosion of reinforcing steel in RC structures
 The rate of material losses :

C  A.t B

C = the average depth of corrosion loss in the material expressed in [m]

t = time expressed in [years]
A and B = the dimensionless coefficients depending on the type of steel
as well as environmental conditions (i.e., rural, urban and maritime ones)
and with the values determined statistically.
Development of the material losses due to surface corrosion
as a function of time and environmental conditions.
Open cross-section of the truss bottom chord with
accumulated contamination
Cross section of the bridge sructure of through type with
corrosion-sensitive places
Typical location of fatique crack in steel bridge superstructures
Possible location of fatique crack in riveted truss bridge