Computer Organization and Architecture

15EM2001
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE
© 2016 KL University – The contents of this presentation are an intellectual and copyrighted property of KL University. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 1
Introduction to computer System and its sub modules
• There are two basic types of electrical signals, namely, analog and
digital. The analog signals are continuous in nature and digital
signals are discrete in nature.
• The electronic device that works with continuous signals is known as

analog device and the electronic device that works with discrete
signals is known as digital device.
• We use ‘0’ to represent LOW and ‘1’ to represent HIGH.
Computer Architecture
• Computer architecture refers to those parameters of a computer
system that are visible to a programmer or those parameters that
have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program.
• Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the

number of bits used to represent different data types, I/O
mechanisms, and techniques for addressing memory.
Computer Organization
• Computer organization refers to the operational units and their
interconnections that realize the architectural specifications.
• Examples of organizational attributes include those hardware details

transparent to the programmer, such as control signals, interfaces
between the computer and peripherals, and the memory technology
used.
Basic Computer Model and different units of Computer
• Central Processor Unit,

• Input Unit,
• Output Unit,
• Memory Unit
Number System & Representation
• Decimal Number System (0-9)
• Octal Number System (0-7)
• Hexa-Decimal Number System (0-F)
• Binary Number System (0, 1)
Representation of Real Number
Binary representation of 41.6875 is 101001.1011
Therefore any real number can be converted to binary number system
There are two schemes to represent real number :
1) Fixed-point representation
2) Floating-point representation
Fixed-point representation
Binary representation of 41.6875 is 101001.1011
To store this number, we have to store two information,
-- the part before decimal point and
-- the part after decimal point.
Floating-point representation
In this representation, numbers are represented by a mantissa comprising the significant
digits and an exponent part of Radix R. The format is:
Numbers are often normalized, such that the decimal point is placed to the right of the
first non zero digit.
For example, the decimal number,
To store this number in floating point representation, we store 5236 in mantissa part
and 3 in exponent part.
Signed Integer
• Range of natural numbers is 0 to 2n-1
• By including negative numbers -2n-1-1 to 2n-1-1
• If we consider 8-bit number, then range of natural number is from 0-
255
• For signed integer range is from -127 to 127
Signed Magnitude Form

If MSB = 0 then it is +ve and if MSB = 1 then it is –ve
Representation of Signed Integer in 1’s complement form
• 01011100
• 10100011
• 11111111
• By adding ‘1’ to the result, it is ‘0’
Representation of Signed Integer in 2’s complement form
01011100
10100100
100000000
Arithmetic & Logical Unit
• Consider an ALU which can perform four arithmetic operations and four logical
operations To distinguish between arithmetic and logical operation, we may use a
signal line,
• 0 - in that signal, represents an arithmetic operation and
• 1 - in that signal, represents a logical operation.
4- bit Full Adder
Binary Subtractor:
Design of ALU
Memory Unit
1. RAM
2. ROM
Block Diagram of RAM Block Diagram of ROM

18
© 2016 KL University – The contents of this presentation are an intellectual and copyrighted property of KL University. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Control Unit
To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU must generate

the required control signal in the proper sequence.
To generate the control signal in proper sequence, a wide variety of techniques

exist. Most of these techniques, however, fall into one of the two categories,
•Hardwired Control
• Microprogrammed Control
Hardwired Control : In this hardwired control techniques, the control signals
are generated by means of hardwired circuit. The main objective of control unit is
to generate the control signal in proper sequence.
Eg: Programmable Logic Array
Microprogrammed Control
In microprogrammed control unit, the logic of the control unit is

specified by a microprogram.
(1) sequencing through microinstructions

(2) generating control signals to execute each microinstruction.
Control Word (CW) :
• Control word is defined as a word whose individual bits represent the various
control signal.
• The individual control words in this microprogram are referred to as
microinstructions.
Machine Language
• A processor can understand and execute machine instructions. Such
instructions are simply binary numbers stored in the computer.
• If a programmer wished to program directly in machine language,

then it would be necessary to enter the program as binary data.
Assembly Language
Assembly language is a programming language that is one step away from machine language.
Typically, each assembly language instruction is translated into one machine instruction by
the assembler.
Assembly language is hardware dependent, with a different assembly language for each type
of processor I1: Move R3, R7 /R3 ← (R7)
I2: Load R8, (R3) /R8 ← Memory (R3)
I3: Add R3, R3, 4 /R3 ← (R3) + 4
I4: Load R9, (R3) /R9 ← Memory (R3)
I5: BLE R8, R9, L3 /Branch if (R9) > (R8)

N=I+J+K
1. Load the contents of location 201 into the AC.
2. Add the contents of location 202 to the AC.
3. Add the contents of location 203 to the AC.
4. Store the contents of the AC in location 204.
Assembly Language
• Compiler
• Interpreter
• Linker
• Loader
Addressing Modes
The most common addressing techniques are:
• Immediate
• Direct
• Indirect
• Register
•Register Indirect
• Displacement
• Stack
To explain the addressing modes, the following notationis used:
A = contents of an address field in the instruction that refers to a

memory
R = contents of an address field in the instruction that refers to a

register
EA = actual (effective) address of the location containing the

referenced operand
(X) = contents of location X
Immediate Addressing
The simplest form of addressing is immediate addressing
OPERAND = A
Instruction
Opcode Operand
Direct Addressing
• Address field contains address of operand
• Effective address (EA) = address field (A)
• e.g. ADD A
• Add contents of cell A to accumulator
• Look in memory at address A for operand
• Single memory reference to access data

• No additional calculations to work out effective address
• Limited address space
Direct Addressing Diagram
Instruction
Address A
Memory
Operand
Indirect Addressing
• Memory cell pointed to by address field contains the address

of (pointer to) the operand
• EA = (A)
• Look in A, find address (A) and look there for operand
• e.g. ADD (A)
• Add contents of cell pointed to by contents of A to accumulator
Indirect Addressing Diagram
Instruction
Address A
Memory
Pointer to operand
Operand
Register Addressing
• Operand is held in register named in address filed
• EA = R
• Limited number of registers
• Very small address field needed
• Shorter instructions
• Faster instruction fetch
Register Addressing
• No memory access
• Very fast execution
• Very limited address space
• Multiple registers helps performance
• Requires good assembly programming or compiler writing
• Direct addressing
Register Addressing Diagram
Instruction
Register Address R
Registers
Operand
Register Indirect Addressing
• Indirect addressing
• EA = (R)
• Operand is in memory cell pointed to by contents of register
R
• Large address space (2n)
• One fewer memory access than indirect addressing
Register Indirect Addressing
Instruction
Opcode Register Address R

Memory
Registers
Pointer to Operand Operand
Displacement Addressing
• EA = A + (R)
• Address field hold two values
• A = base value
• R = register that holds displacement
• or vice versa
Displacement Addressing Diagram
• Relative Addressing
• Base-Register Addressing
• Indexing
• auto-indexing
• auto-incrementing
• EA = A + (R)
• R = (R) + 1
• auto-decrementing
• EA = A + (R)
• R = (R) – 1
• If indexing is performed after the indirection, it is termed
postindexing
EA = (A) + (R)
• With preindexing, the indexing is performed before the
indirection:
EA = ( A + (R) )
Stack Addressing
• Operand is (implicitly) on top of stack
• e.g.
• ADD Pop top two items from stack and add
Instruction Set
• The operation of a CPU is determine by the instruction it
executes, referred to as machine instructions or computer
instructions. The collection of different instructions is referred
as the instruction set of the CPU.
• Each instruction must contain the information required by the

CPU for execution.
Opcodes are represented by abbreviations, called
mnemonics, that indicate the operations
4-bits 6-bits 6-bits
Opcode Operand1 Operand2
A simple instruction format
The instruction set of a CPU can be categorized as follows:
1. Data Processing
2. Data Storage
3. Data Movement
4. Control
Types of Operands
1. Addresses
2. Numbers
3. Characters
4. Logical Data
Types of Operations
• Data Transfer
• Arithmetic
• Logical
• Conversion
• Input Output [ I/O ]
• System Control
• Transfer Control
A. Data Transfer
Move (Transfer) --------Transfer word or block from source to destination
Store ----------------------Transfer word from processor to memory
Load (fetch) -------------Transfer word from memory to processor
Exchange ----------------Swap contents of source and destination
Clear (reset)------------- Transfer word of 0s to destination
Set -------------------------Transfer word of 1s to destination
Push -----------------------Transfer word from source to top of stack
Pop -------------------------Transfer word from top of stack to destination

B. Arithmetic
Add --------------Compute sum of two operands
Subtract --------Compute difference of two operands
Multiply ---------Compute product of two operands
Divide -----------Compute quotient of two operands
Absolute --------Replace operand by its absolute value
Negate ----------Change sign of operand
Increment ------Add 1 to operand
Decrement -----Subtract 1 from operand

C. Logical
AND -----------------------Performs the logical operation AND bitwise
OR--------------------------Performs the logical operation OR bitwise
NOT -----------------------Performs the logical operation NOT bitwise
Exclusive OR -------------Performs the specified logical operation Exclusive-OR
bitwise
Test --------------------------Test specified condition; set flag(s) based on outcome
Compare -------------------Make logical or arithmetic comparison Set flag(s)
based on outcome
Set Control Variables------Class of instructions to set controls for protection
purposes, interrupt handling, timer control etc.
Shift -----------------------Left (right) shift operand, introducing constant at end
Rotate --------------------Left (right) shift operation, with wraparound end
D. Input/output
Input (Read)----- Transfer data from specified I/O port or device to
destination (e.g., main memory or processor register)
Output (Write)----Transfer data from specified source to I/O port or

device.
Start I/O------------ Transfer instructions to I/O processor to initiate

I/O operation.
Test I/O --------------Transfer status information from I/O system to

specified destination
E. System Control
• System control instructions are those which are

used for system setting and it can be used only in
privileged state.
• Typically, these instructions are reserved for the

use of operating systems.
F. Transfer of Control
• The most common transfer-of-control operations
found in instruction set are:
• Branch
• Skip
• Procedure call.
BRP X ----Branch to location X if result is positive
BRN X ---- Branch to location X if result is negative
BRZ X----- Branch to location X is result is zero
BRO X----- Branch to location X if overflow occurs
Instruction Format
Opcode Zero Address Instruction
Opcode Address One Address Instruction
Opcode Address1 Address2 Two Address Instruction
Opcode Address1 Address2 Address3

Three Address Instruction
Example: X = (A + B) * (C + D)
Three address instructions
ADD R1 , A , B R 1 <--M [ A ] + M [ B ]
ADD R2 , C , D R 2 <--M [ C ] + M [ D ]
MUL X , R1 , R2 M [ X ] <--R 1 * R 2
Two address instructions
MOV R1 , A R 1 <--M [ A ]
ADD R1 , B R 1 <--R 1 + M [ B ]
MOV R2 , C R 2 <--M [ C ]
ADD R2 , D R 2 <--R 2 + M [ D ]
MUL R1 , R2 R 1 <--R 1 * R 2
MOV X , R1 M [ X ] <--R 1
One address instructions
LOAD A A C <- M [ A J
ADD B A C <- A C + M [ B ]
STORE T M [ T ] <- A C
LOAD C A C <- M [ C ]
ADD D A C <- A C + M [ D ]
MUL T A C <- A C • M [ T ]
STORE X M [ X ] <- A C
Zero address instructions
Stack Organization
Block diagram of 64- word stack
Subroutine Calls
Requirements
Set PC to arbitrary address
Return PC to instruction after call sequence
Handle nested subroutine calls
Save and restore caller’s registers
Pass an arbitrary number of arguments
Pass and return structures
Allocate and de-allocate space for local variables


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15EM2001

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

• The electronic device that works with continuous signals is known as

• Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the

• Examples of organizational attributes include those hardware details

• Central Processor Unit,

• Decimal Number System (0-9)

• Octal Number System (0-7)

• Hexa-Decimal Number System (0-F)

• Binary Number System (0, 1)

Binary representation of 41.6875 is 101001.1011

Therefore any real number can be converted to binary number system

There are two schemes to represent real number :

Binary representation of 41.6875 is 101001.1011

To store this number, we have to store two information,

-- the part before decimal point and

-- the part after decimal point.

For example, the decimal number,

Signed Magnitude Form

Representation of Signed Integer in 2’s complement form

Block Diagram of RAM Block Diagram of ROM

To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU must generate

To generate the control signal in proper sequence, a wide variety of techniques

In microprogrammed control unit, the logic of the control unit is

(1) sequencing through microinstructions

• If a programmer wished to program directly in machine language,

I2: Load R8, (R3) /R8 ← Memory (R3)

I3: Add R3, R3, 4 /R3 ← (R3) + 4

I4: Load R9, (R3) /R9 ← Memory (R3)

I5: BLE R8, R9, L3 /Branch if (R9) > (R8)

1. Load the contents of location 201 into the AC.

2. Add the contents of location 202 to the AC.

3. Add the contents of location 203 to the AC.

4. Store the contents of the AC in location 204.

A = contents of an address field in the instruction that refers to a

R = contents of an address field in the instruction that refers to a

EA = actual (effective) address of the location containing the

(X) = contents of location X

The simplest form of addressing is immediate addressing

• Single memory reference to access data

• Memory cell pointed to by address field contains the address

Opcode Register Address R

Pointer to Operand Operand

• Each instruction must contain the information required by the

4-bits 6-bits 6-bits

Opcode Operand1 Operand2

A simple instruction format

Store ----------------------Transfer word from processor to memory

Load (fetch) -------------Transfer word from memory to processor

Exchange ----------------Swap contents of source and destination

Clear (reset)------------- Transfer word of 0s to destination

Set -------------------------Transfer word of 1s to destination

Push -----------------------Transfer word from source to top of stack

Pop -------------------------Transfer word from top of stack to destination

Subtract --------Compute difference of two operands

Multiply ---------Compute product of two operands

Divide -----------Compute quotient of two operands

Absolute --------Replace operand by its absolute value

Negate ----------Change sign of operand

Increment ------Add 1 to operand

Decrement -----Subtract 1 from operand

Output (Write)----Transfer data from specified source to I/O port or

Start I/O------------ Transfer instructions to I/O processor to initiate