Intro To Broadcast Journ

FTT 308 Introduction to
Broadcast Journalism
Gary Sieber
Introduction
What is “News”?
Introduction
Dictionary says:
1) New information about anything.
2) Recent happenings.
3) Reports of such events, collectively.
4) A newspaper or broadcast news program.
What Is News?
8 determinants of newsworthiness:
Importance (to the greatest # of viewers)
What Is News?
Interest (regardless of importance)
What Is News?
Controversy
What Is News?
Controversy
The Unusual (“Man bites dog!”)
What Is News?
Controversy
Timeliness
What Is News?
Controversy
Timeliness
Proximity
What Is News?
Controversy
Timeliness
Proximity
Celebrity
What Is News?
Controversy
Timeliness
Proximity
Celebrity
Caught on Tape!
Introduction
Some alternative notions:
“News is what people talk about during
coffee breaks.”
Introduction
coffee breaks.”
“News means carrying on and amplifying the
conversation of people themselves.”
– James Carey, Columbia University.
Introduction
coffee breaks.”
“News means carrying on and amplifying the
conversation of people themselves.”
– James Carey, Columbia University.
“News is more than a mere collection of facts
-- News means telling stories.”
Fiscal Year
% of Revenue
NewsCenter 16 Today Show
45.9% 4.6%
Prime Olympics
17.5% 4.6%
Access Early Fringe (4-5pm)
8.8% 3.0%
Late Fringe Sports
6.6% 2.2%
Daytime (9a-4p) Infomercials
5.5% 1.4%
News Revenue
By Program
NewsCenter 16 @10/11pm(M-F) 24.4%
NewsCenter 16 Morning Show(M-F) 22.3%
NewsCenter 16 @ 6pm(M-F) 20.2%
NewsCenter 16 @ 5pm (M-F) 11.9%
NewsCenter 16 Saturday Morning 6.5%
NewsCenter 16 @ 10/11pm (Sat/Sun) 4.6%
NewsCenter 16 @ 5:30pm (M-F, Win.) 4.0%
NewsCenter 16 @ Noon (M-F) 2.5%
NewsCenter 16 Sunday Morning 1.8%
NewsCenter 16 @ 6pm (Sat/Sun) 1.7%
Introduction
Differences among the Media (plural, not

singular)
Introduction

singular)
W. Phillips Davison -- Columbia University
sociologist:
Radio: “The alerting medium.” Radio’s
effectiveness comes from the immediacy of
electronic communication.
Introduction

singular)
sociologist:
Print (incl. Newspapers): “The informing
medium.” Print has the unique ability to
handle complexity and detail that the
electronic media cannot. It also has the
luxury of time to assemble coherent and
meaningful analyses of events.
Introduction

singular)
sociologist:
Television: “The involving medium.”
Television engages the emotions of viewers in
a way that no other medium can. It
combines the effects of pictures, sound,
narrative, and electronic immediacy.
Newsroom Organization
and Structure
News Director
and Structure
News Director
Executive Producer
and Structure
News Director
Executive Producer Assistant News Director

and Structure
News Director
Producers
and Structure
News Director
Producers Assignment
Editor
and Structure
News Director
Editor
Reporters Photographers
and Structure
News Director
Anchors
Editor
Reporters Photographers
Typical TV Station
Departments
• Production
• Promotion
• Engineering
• Sales
• Programming
• Accounting
• Management
16 mm Film
Portability
Ease of maintenance
Softer “feel”
Splice-and-tape editing
Difficulty with archive re-edits
Audio popping
Non-reusable medium
No electronic output
Function of Producer
No satellite coordination

No IFB communication
No concern about suitability of live
material
Mostly stacking and timing
Not generally considered a management
track position.
Emergence of ENG and
videotape
Originally very bulky - not very portable

Electronic output for liveshots
Ease of editing (electronic, not splicing)
Harder “feel” - sharper edges, clarity
CCD led to improved low-light images
No processing required
Reusable medium
Electronic News Gathering
(ENG)
Microwave signal
“line of sight”
Electronic News Gathering
(ENG)
Satellite News Gathering
(SNG)
Speed of light =
186,000 mi./sec.
1/4 sec. delay between

22,300 miles sender & receiver
(each way)
(SNG)
Geosynchronous Orbit
S
D S
x
Earth
(SNG)
Transponder = “transmitter / responder”

multiple units on satellites that each receive,
amplify, & retransmit telecommunications
Window = slot of transponder time
reserved for use by purchaser
Uplink / Downlink
C-Band Ku-Band
“Bird” = “Satellite” (K2, Westar 3, etc.)
“Being Told” vs. “Being
There”
Viet Nam War

2-3 Days Elapsed
Event Message
 Many Gatekeepers
Photog/Rept. L.A.- N.Y. -
 Importance of
Developer News Dir. Anchors
Producer Producer  Time for Analysis &
Editor Ex. Prod. News Judgment
Ex. Prod. Anchor  Loss of Immediacy
Editor
“Being Told” vs. “Being
There”
Iraq War
Real Time - No Delay

Event Message
 No Gatekeepers / Filters
Photog/Rept.
“Anticipation of News” - Not News Itself
 Increased Importance of Correspondents
 Participants Rather Than Observers
 Immediate & Engaging, But Not Necessarily
Informing.
Writing for Broadcast
Not as easy as it looks
. . . Or sounds.
Let’s Write a Haiku
Traditional Japanese poetry

17 syllables total: 5-7-5
Doesn’t have to rhyme
Usually has some reference to one of the
seasons of the year (but doesn’t have to
for our exercise).
Haiku
All that remains of

those brave warriors' courage-
these summer grasses
- Basho
Haiku Master
Why Haiku?
It is similar to writing broadcast news copy:

Written on short deadline.
Can say a lot in a very short span of time.
Demands an economy of words (17 syllables!).
Leaves room for only the most important
ideas.
Requires precision and accuracy.
Effectiveness depends on the sound of the
words as well as the meaning.
Must be read out loud..
Writing: Broadcast vs.
Print
Print Broadcast
Print
Print Broadcast
 Information processed Information processed
by the eye by the ear
Print
Print Broadcast
 Limited space Limited time

Print
Print Broadcast
 Unlimited review One-pass-through medium

Print
Print Broadcast
 Unlimited review One-pass-through medium
 Detailed/Formal Conversational
Inverted Pyramid
Lead sentence: Most Important

5 W’s + H Who, What, When,
Where, Why,
& How
Least Important
Writing for Broadcast
Economy of Words
Straight-line Meaning
Sounds Good
Passes the “So What?” Test
Familiar Terms
(Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis)
Do Not “Write Down” to Your Audience!

How Not to Write
for Broadcast
The Elkhart County Parks Board

today has a better idea what needs to
be done to shore up the Goshen Dam.
An engineer’s report recommends
covering the rock-filled mesh gabions
with a grout.
The study also calls for working on
the earthen bank between the dam and
the mill race to retard erosion...
How Not to Write
for Broadcast
The county is also waiting for a

department of natural resources report to
find out what work will be needed on the
spillway itself.
Parks officials anticipate the D-N-R will
recommend redoing the face of the dam…
pressure grouting inside the structure…
and installing a permanent stilling basin to
fight erosion downstream...
How Not to Write
for Broadcast
There’s no estimate at this time how

much the work will cost… or when the
D-N-R report will be complete.
Or How About a
Health News Story?...
In health news today…

Stem cell research is pointing
scientists in a new direction
concerning cardiovascular disease.
Researchers from Emory
University and the National Heart,
Lung, and Blood Institute compared
levels of endothelial progenitor
Or How About a
Health News Story?...
cells in forty-five men and found the
lowest levels had the highest risk
for developing the disease.
The two worst common forms of
cardiovascular disease are heart
attack and stroke.
The study can be found in the
New England Journal of Medicine.
Take Two Aspirin
And in related health news…
Emory researchers have also
established a link between two
classes of AIDS drugs and
cardiovascular disease risk.
The study finds two forms of anti-
retroviral therapy may alter the way
the body metabolizes triglycerides, or
blood fats.
Take Two Aspirin…
Researchers studied men and
women who took either protease
inhibitors or drugs called “N-N-R-T-I-S”
and compared levels of a triglyceride
marker to volunteers not on the
therapy.
They found all patients on the
drugs had elevated levels of the
triglyceride marker.
Take Two Aspirin…
Experts say further study is

needed to confirm these results, but
this finding could mean anti-retroviral
therapy elevates the risk of
cardiovascular disease.
This study is being presented
today at the 10th conference on
retroviruses and opportunistic
infections in Boston.
Peanuts Anyone?...
A new study is yielding good news
for parents of children with peanut
allergies… research suggests some
patients may eventually outgrow the
allergy.
The study of 80 children with
established peanut allergies found that
more than half had no reaction when
exposed to the nuts.
Peanuts Anyone?...
But two of those 64 had
suspicious reactions after eating
peanuts again.
Experts say the findings suggest
that in some patients, the allergy may
come and go.. And recommend kids
diagnosed with peanut allergy be re-
tested every year or two.
Peanuts Anyone?...
This study was conducted at
Johns Hopkins children’s center and
is published in this month’s issue of
the Journal of Allergy and Clinical
Immunology.
President Who?...
President Bush is making the last
stop in his five-nation African tour in
as many days, with a visit to Nigeria
this morning.
President Bush arrived in the
Nigerian capital Saturday morning to a
ceremonious welcome.
Bush was greeted by Nigerian
President Olusegun Obasanjo, who
President Who?...
has been at the forefront of resolving
regional disputes in Africa.
The two heads of state are
expected to discuss the situation in
Liberia and the possibility of the
United States contributing
peacekeeping troops to help bolster a
multi-national African force already in
the war-torn West African nation.
7 Parts of Speech
V
A
N
C
A
P
P
7 Parts of Speech
Verbs
A
N
C
A
P
P
7 Parts of Speech
Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

A
N
C
A
P
P
7 Parts of Speech

Adjectives
N
C
A
P
P
7 Parts of Speech

Adjectives (Careful! - Objectivity)
N
C
A
P
P
7 Parts of Speech

Nouns
C
A
P
P
7 Parts of Speech

Nouns (A journalist’s bricks)
C
A
P
P
7 Parts of Speech

Conjunctions
A
P
P
7 Parts of Speech

Conjunctions (Careful! - Lengthy)
A
P
P
7 Parts of Speech

Adverbs
P
P
7 Parts of Speech

Adverbs (Careful! - Objectivity)
P
P
7 Parts of Speech

Pronouns
P
7 Parts of Speech

Pronouns (Careful! - Clarity)
P
7 Parts of Speech

Prepositions
7 Parts of Speech

Prepositions (Careful! - Lengthy)
Verbs
Verbs
Verb = A word that expresses an action or

a state of being.
Verbs
Verb = A word that expresses an action or

a state of being.
Action Verbs: run, walk, hit, throw, etc.
Verbs
Verb = A word that expresses an action or a

state of being.
Action Verbs: run, walk, hit, throw, etc.
Verbs of Being: am, is, are, was, were, be,
been, being (any form of “to be”) +
words like “appear” or “feel.”
Joey Falco is under arrest.
Rachel Warford appears ill despite this
interesting lecture.
Action Verbs
Action Verbs
Action Verbs can be Transitive or

Intransitive:
Transitive verbs require a Direct Object.
They express an action that is
performed on someone or something:
• Estella Ganger hit her roommate.
• Leo Ferrine throws the baseball.
Intransitive Action Verbs
Intransitive Verbs do not take a Direct

Object.
They express actions that do not
require a recipient:
• Katie sings in the choir.
• Colleen walks in the woods.
• Vince writes beautifully.
Transitive Action Verbs
Voice
All Transitive Verbs Have 2 Voices:

Active Voice
Subject performs the action:
“I hit you.”
Voice
All Transitive Verbs Have 2 Voices:

Active Voice
Subject performs the action:
“I hit you.”
Passive Voice
Subject receives the action:
“You were hit by me.”
Advantages of the Active
Voice
Straight-line meaning.
Listeners less likely to confuse who did what.
Economy of words.
Saves time while promoting clarity.
More accurate reporting.
Forces the writer to include vital information.
More appealing to the ear.
Sounds more natural; conversational.
Components of the Passive
Voice
A verb phrase (at least 2 words)

Some form of “to be” in the verb phrase:
“The national anthem was sung by Katie
Antonacci.”
The subject of the sentence is the receiver,
rather than the performer of the verb’s action:
“Thomas McCall is being arrested for
swimming in the reflecting pool.”
Changing Passive Voice
to Active Voice
Relocate the Actor -- usually by making

the direct object the subject of the
sentence:
“Lisa will be driven insane by Professor
Sieber.”
to Active Voice
Relocate the Actor -- usually by making

the direct object the subject of the
sentence:
Sieber.”
“Professor Sieber will drive Lisa insane.”
to Active Voice
Relocate the Actor -- usually by making the

direct object the subject of the sentence:
Sieber.”
Identify the Missing Actor:
“The airplane was landed during the storm.”
to Active Voice
Relocate the Actor -- usually by making the

direct object the subject of the sentence:
Sieber.”
Identify the Missing Actor:
“The airplane was landed during the storm.”
“Father Jenkins landed the airplane during
the storm.”
to Active Voice
Change the Verb:

“The bell will be sounded at noon.”
to Active Voice
Change the Verb:

“The bell will ring at noon.”
to Active Voice
Change the Verb:

“The bell will ring at noon.”
Simply Drop the “to be” Verb:
“The spotlight was focused on downtown.”
“The spotlight focused on downtown.”
Passive Voice FAQs
Is the passive voice grammatically

incorrect?
No, but it is a construction better suited for
print than broadcast writing. The active voice
is used more frequently in everyday
conversation.
Is it ever O.K. to use the passive voice?
Sure, in a few rare cases. “He was born in
1973.” “She was injured in the fire.”
You Make the Call
(Active or Passive?)
The mountain was easily climbed by the

scout troop.
You Make the Call

scout troop.
The lost earrings were found by the sales
clerk.
You Make the Call

scout troop.
clerk.
Henrietta carried the injured dog to the
pet hospital.
You Make the Call

scout troop.
clerk.
Henrietta carried the injured dog to the
pet hospital.
Mrs. Jennings was given a blue ribbon by
the judges for her pie.
You Make the Call
The Bartons’ car crushed our flower bed.

You Make the Call

The charcoal was supplied by the park
rangers.
You Make the Call

rangers.
The news director’s point was not missed
by the reporter.
You Make the Call

rangers.
by the reporter.
A mistrial was declared in the case.
You Make the Call

rangers.
by the reporter.
A mistrial was declared in the case.
Teachers were taught a thing or two
themselves.
You Make the Call
He turned to the federal system after

being rejected in his appeals by the state.
You Make the Call

Firefighters were called to the scene just
before noon.
You Make the Call

before noon.
Scenes of the historic meeting were
watched by viewers around the world.
You Make the Call

before noon.
Scenes of the historic meeting were
watched by viewers around the world.
The pilot was let go and the escapees
sped away.
You Make the Call
A South Bend woman was arrested last

night for leaving her children locked in a
car for eight hours.
You Make the Call

car for eight hours. (Past Tense / Passive)
Don’t Get Tense

Police arrested a South Bend woman last
car for eight hours.
Don’t Get Tense

car for eight hours. (Past Tense / Active)
Don’t Get Tense

Police have arrested a South Bend woman
for leaving her children locked in a car for
eight hours.
Don’t Get Tense

Police have arrested a South Bend woman
for leaving her children locked in a car for
eight hours. (Present Perfect Tense)
Don’t Get Tense
Police arrest a South Bend woman for

leaving her children locked in a car for
eight hours.
Don’t Get Tense
Police arrest a South Bend woman for

leaving her children locked in a car for
eight hours. (Historical Present Tense)
Don’t Get Tense
Present Tense
Terrail Lambert likes this class.
Don’t Get Tense
Present Tense
Historical Present Tense
Terrail Lambert drives in three runs as the
Irish beat North Carolina.
Don’t Get Tense
Present Tense
Historical Present Tense
Terrail Lambert drives in three runs as the
Irish beat North Carolina.
Present Perfect Tense
Terrail Lambert has driven in 54 runs so far
this season.
Don’t Get Tense
Past Tense
Terrail Lambert drove in three runs in
Sunday’s win over North Carolina.
Don’t Get Tense
Past Tense
Past Perfect Tense
Terrail Lambert had driven in three runs
before the Tar Heels knew what day it was.
Don’t Get Tense
Past Tense
Past Perfect Tense
Terrail Lambert had driven in three runs
before the Tar Heels knew what day it was.
Future Tense
Terrail Lambert will drop this class if I keep
using his name.
Types of TV News Stories
Reader (RDR):
Less than 30 seconds in length.
Used only when pictures are not available
(breaking story, e.g.).
“Talking Head” (yuk!)
Reader (RDR):
Less than 30 seconds in length.
Used only when pictures are not available
(breaking story, e.g.).
“Talking Head” (yuk!)
Anchor Voice-Over (AVO):
20-40 seconds in length.
Used as a quick update to earlier story, or
“video headline” of less important story.
Anchor Voice-Over w/ Soundbite

(AVO/SOT - “Sound On Tape”):
20-60 seconds in length.
Provides greater detail, comments from
witnesses, officials, or “natural sound.”
Soundbites generally less than 10 seconds.
Don’t be redundant getting into or out of
soundbites.
Provide in-cues and out-cues for video &
bites.
Package (PKG):
An edited, self-contained videotape report of
a news event or feature, complete with
pictures, soundbites, voice-over narration,
and natural sounds. The package is a form of
narrative story telling with a beginning,
middle, and ending.
Package (PKG):
The backbone of contemporary TV
newscasts.
Great advantage: Precision of editing
pictures, sound, and narration.
50 seconds - 2:00 + in length. Depends on
the overall quality of the story (importance,
visual appeal, strong writing, etc.).
Provides depth and complexity.
Demonstrates firsthand knowledge.
Live Shots (LIVE):

Immediacy, Energy, Pace.
Often used as a “wrap-around” for packages.
Can include interviews.
Can be a remote AVO(/sot) by reporter.
Scripted in advance (most of the time).
Bad idea to memorize script verbatim.
Script Writing
Use the right half of the page for script.

Use the left half of the page for technical
instructions (ENG #, running time, etc.)
Write in ALL CAPS.
Double space
Indent every sentence as if it were a new
paragraph.
Search Strategy
Search Strategy
Question Analysis
Search Strategy
Identification of Potential Contributors
Search Strategy
Informal Sources
Search Strategy
Informal Sources
Institutional Sources
Search Strategy
Informal Sources
Library & Database Sources
Search Strategy
Informal Sources
Interviews
Search Strategy
Informal Sources
Interviews
Selection and Synthesis
Search Strategy
Informal Sources
Interviews
Selection and Synthesis
Message
Search Strategy
(Informal Source Hazards)
Impressionistic
Opinion Based
Fragmentary
Possibly Inaccurate or Self-Serving
Informal sources are best used as
STIMULATORS, providing the FIRST word
in a story, not the LAST word.
Search Strategy
(Inst. Source Hazards)
Institutional Bias:
U.S. Dept. of Defense vs. Women’s
International League for Peace and Freedom
Selective Disclosure of Information
Ethics vs. Law
Law and Ethics are different subjects.

Vast majority of media ethics cases have no
legal context; BUT, almost all media law cases
are dispatched without the slightest
consideration of ethical principles.
Law is one source of moral precepts, but not
the only (or necessarily best) source. Other
sources: Religion, Societal Values, Cultural
Norms.
Ethics vs. Law
Law is a limited source of ethical values.

Often thought of as a “floor,” below which
activities are considered immoral. BUT:
Are all legal behaviors ethical?
Are all illegal behaviors unethical? (Thoreau’s
concept of Civil Disobedience; Ghandi; MLK).
“mala en se” vs. “mala prohibita”
Guiding Principles for
Journalists
Seek the Truth and Report It.

Minimize Harm
Act Independently
Be Accountable
Quantifying Ethics?
HIGH HIGH
LOW HIGH Range of
Acceptable
Minimize
Actions?
Harm LOW LOW
LOW HIGH
Seek Truth & Report It

Quantifying Ethics?
HIGH HIGH Range of

LOW HIGH Acceptable
Be
Actions?
Accountable
LOW LOW
LOW HIGH
Act Independently
The Potter Box
JUDGMENT?
I. Define the IV. Decide

SOCIAL Situation Loyalties
II. Examine III. Consult

Values Principles
ANALYTICAL
WHAT? WHY?
The Potter Box
-- Ethical Principles
Aristotle’s “Golden Mean” (4th Cent. B.C.):

“Moral virtue is the appropriate location
between two extremes.”
Shamelessness Modesty Bashfulness
Stinginess Generosity Wastefulness

The Potter Box
Immanuel Kant (“Critique of Practical

Reason” - 1788):
“Act on that maxim which you will to become
a universal law.” (Categorical Imperative).
Certain actions (lying, cheating, stealing) are
always wrong. The circumstances don’t matter.
Deception by the media, even to get a good story,
cannot be excused or tolerated.
An absolutist position.
The Potter Box
John Stuart Mill (“Principle of Utility” -

mid-1800’s):
“Seek the greatest happiness for the greatest
number of people.” Or: “The good of the
many outweighs the good of the few -- or the
one.” (Star Trek: The Wrath of Khan).
Focus on consequences rather than the inherent
goodness or evil in the act itself.
Stealing from the rich to give to the poor is okay.
A relativist position.
The Potter Box
John Rawls (“Veil of Ignorance” --

contemporary egalitarian philosophy):
“Justice emerges when negotiating without
social differentiations.”
Fairness is fundamental to justice & ethics.
Behind the veil of ignorance, no one knows how
they will emerge when stepping back into real life.
Independence, toughness, & persistence are
good qualities for the journalist; cynicism,
boorishness, and callous insensitivity are not.
The Potter Box
The Golden Rule (Judaeo-Christian

tradition & nearly all the world’s religions):
“Love your neighbor as yourself.”
“Do unto others as you would yourself be
treated.”
Moral Development
Moral Development Scores
For Various Professionals
 Seminarians/Philosophers
 Medical Students
 Practicing Physicians  Veterinary Students
 Journalists  Navy Enlisted Men
 Dental Students  Orthopedic Surgeons
 Nurses  Adults in General
 Graduate Students  High School Students
 Undergraduate Students  Prison Inmates
 Junior High Students
Theories of
Moral Development
“Tabula Rasa” = “Blank Slate”

Children start with no innate understanding
of right and wrong.
If they are taught good things, they will turn
out good.
If they are taught bad things, they will turn
out bad.
Theories of
Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg (Harvard Psychologist

- 1963). “Model of Justice.”
People develop in their conception of
moral reasoning through a specific series
of sequential stages.
Based on how people understand justice.
Primary motivating force is internal
psychological conflict. Current stage of
moral reasoning no longer meets needs.
Kohlberg’s Stages of
Moral Development
LEVEL ONE: Pre-conventional or

Egocentric Stages.
Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience
Orientation.
Right = obedience to authority figures and
avoidance of punishment.
Stage 2: Instrument and Relativity
Orientation.
Right = meeting one’s own needs & desires, with
little regard for others.
Kohlberg’s Stages
of Moral Development
LEVEL TWO: Conventional or Social

Stages.
Stage 3: Interpersonal and Concordance
Orientation.
Right = Social approval; being liked and thought
of as a good person.
Stage 4: Law & Order Orientation.
Right = accord w/ laws & rules; obedience not
from fear of punishment, but to maintain social
order.
Kohlberg’s Stages
LEVEL THREE: Post-Conventional or

Principled Stages.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation.
Right = harmony w/ social principles behind laws;
see a higher moral authority than the rule-makers,
and will challenge laws out of step w/ deeper
social values & principles.
Kohlberg’s Stages
LEVEL THREE (cont’d.)

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles
Orientation.
Right = adherence to one’s personally articulated
yet universal ethical principles. Not followed by all
of humanity, but all rational and logical thinkers
would conclude that these are worthy principles to
follow. (Martin Luther King, Jr., Mahatma Ghandi).
Bob Miller Crash
A woman is in serious condition with
head injuries after her car darted across
traffic and crashed into a store window
today in south bend.
Bob Miller Crash
This afternoon, a local female
driver loses control and crashes into
the front window of Bob Miller’s
appliances.
Bob Miller Crash
A local woman is being treated for
head injuries and is in serious
condition at Memorial Hospital this
evening.
The woman was the cause of a
serious car accident at Bob Miller’s
Appliances earlier this afternoon.
Bob Miller Crash
A speeding car interrupted
shoppers at a South Bend business
when it crashed through the front
window shortly after noon today.
Bob Miller Crash
A woman wreaks havoc at Bob
Miller’s appliances early this
afternoon when she loses control of a
speeding stolen car and crashes ti
through the South Bend store’s
window.
Bob Miller Crash
A speeding car veers off of the

road and crashes into a South Bend
business, leaving its driver injured.
The American Legal
System
Divided (broadly) into two types of cases:

Criminal law.
Involves the commission of an offense against the
state (murder, robbery, assault, larceny, etc.).
Burden of proof: Beyond a reasonable doubt.
Goals:
• Punish the wrongdoer.
• Deter others from similar behavior.
• Provide retribution (justice) for the victim.
• Rehabilitate the offender.
The American Legal
System
Two broad types of cases (cont’d).

Civil Law:
Involves one party suing another for a wrong that
has been committed .
Burden of proof: Preponderance of evidence.
Goals:
• Compensation, not just punishment; the
retrieval, to the extent possible, of what was
lost. (Compensatory damages).
• In some cases, deterrence. (Punitive
damages).
Law of Torts
A “tort” is a wrongful or harmful act

committed by one party against another.
Tort law may be viewed as the backbone
of civil litigation.
“When one person sues another, and no
contract is involved, it is a matter for the
law of torts.”
3 Kinds of Torts
Intentional Torts:
Oldest form of tort liability, and similar to
crimes in the criminal law.
Assault, battery, trespass, and wrongful
death (murder) are examples of intentional
torts.
But compensation to the victim is the
primary goal, not punishment to the offender.
3 Kinds of Torts
Negligence Torts:
Bread & butter of tort law.
Banana peel “slip & fall” lawsuits, traffic
accidents involving personal injury, etc., etc.
Negligence: “Failure to act as an ordinary,
reasonable person would act under the
circumstances.”
3 Kinds of Torts
Strict Liability Torts:

Accidents that are “nobody’s fault.”
The result of an activity considered fraught
with unusual risk (making TNT, for example).
Now applies to most manufacturing concerns
-- “product liability.”
“When there are public hazards inherent in
defective products that reach the market,
responsibility for injury must be fixed where it
will most effectively reduce the hazard.”
New York Times v. Sullivan
Among the most important Supreme

Court decisions of the 20th century:
The starting point for all discussion of
modern libel law in the United States.
A collision of the federal judiciary with the
states.
The role of the media as an agent for social
change.
The slow, painful struggle for legal and social
equality for African Americans.
Social/Historical context:
A last desperate attempt by southern states to
suppress the message of civil rights activists.
NY Times v. Sullivan was a political tool, not an
attempt to challenge the 1st Amendment
freedoms of the press.
Like many lawsuits, Times v. Sullivan had
unforeseen consequences. By happenstance, it
had a broad impact on American journalism,
though that was not its original intent.
Alabama (1960):
Libel was a strict liability tort.
If the product was proved to be defective -- even
minor deviations from the literal truth -- then the
publisher was strictly liable for the injuries caused.
State libel laws were not weighed against
federally guaranteed 1st Amendment press
freedoms.
Damages from libel were “presumed.” Publishers
could be forced to pay huge monetary judgments
w/out any actual proof that the plaintiff suffered
demonstrable harm.
Alabama (1960) - “Kangaroo Court?”
Trial lasted 3 days.
Judge Walter B. Jones - “The Confederate Creed.”
Seating by race. Racial epithets routinely used.
“…the white man’s justice… will give the parties,
regardless of race or color, equal justice under law.”
394 of 650,000 copies of NYT went to Alabama; only
35 copies to Montgomery Co.
6 witnesses said ad was “of and concerning” Sullivan.
$500,000 award to Sullivan; 10 more cases waiting -
seeking $5,600,000; 5 against CBS for $1,700,000.
NY Times v. Sullivan (‘64)
Majority (6-3) opinion by Justice William
Brennan
Made state libel laws (most of which were

strict liability torts) subject to a
constitutional First Amendment test:
“…Against the background of a profound
national commitment to the principle that
debate on public issues should be uninhibited,
robust and wide-open, and that it may well
include vehement, caustic and sometimes
unpleasantly sharp attacks on government
and public officials.”
Brennan
Established the standard of “actual

malice” in cases involving public
officials. Actual malice defined to mean:
Knowledge that a published defamatory
statement was false, OR
Reckless disregard of whether the statement
was false or not. (More than mere negligence).
Reckless disregard means to transgress to the
point of being sinful: A deliberate lie or at least
serious doubts as to the truth of the statement.
Brennan
Absent proof of actual malice, public

officials were prevented from recovering
damages. Times v. Sullivan did not grant
the media absolute immunity from libel
suits brought by public officials, but it
created a very difficult standard of proof
for such plaintiffs.
Saturday Evening Post v.
Butts, A.P. v. Walker (‘67)
Extended the actual malice standard to

“public figures” in addition to public
officials.
Public figure = “a public man in whose
public conduct society and the press have
a legitimate and substantial interest.”
Rosenbloom v. Metromedia
(‘71)
Extended NY Times v. Sullivan actual

malice standard to private figures involved
in issues of public interest, like crime.
Gertz v. Welch (‘74)
Reversed the Rosenbloom decision.
Gave courts wider leeway in determining
whether someone was a public person.
Gave state courts the right to decide what
standard of liability should be used in cases
brought by private persons. (Negligence,
Strict Liability, or Actual Malice).
No such thing as a “false opinion,” BUT
facts disguised as opinion are actionable.
Herbert v. Lando (‘79)
Subjected the media’s decision making

processes to the scrutiny of “discovery”
under the rules of civil lawsuits.
Harte-Hanks Communications
v. Connaughton (‘89)
Actual malice can be proven by errors of

omission: A publisher or broadcaster who
deliberately decides not to pursue
information which could have refuted a
defamatory allegation.
Milkovich v. Lorain Journal
(‘90)
Did away with the Gertz v. Welch ruling

that opinion is protected. Any statement
is actionable, even if stated in the form of
an opinion, if it includes facts that can be
proven true or false.
Masson v. New Yorker Mag.
& Janet Malcolm (‘91)
Use of quotation marks indicates a nearly

verbatim transcript of what someone said.
The deliberate alteration of a plaintiff’s
words does not equate w/ knowledge of
falsity... UNLESS it results in a material
change in the statement’s meaning.
Cohen v. Cowles Media Co.
(‘91)
Breaking a promise of anonymity to a

confidential source can be legitimate
grounds for a breach of contract lawsuit.
Eppie Chang v. WNDU
Anonymous Source
Called on weekend
Reporter checked story on Monday
Story ran on Wednesday
Eppie Chang v. WNDU
Items different from court documents:

“Idustrial espionage” vs. “Misappropriation of
trade secrets”
Glucometer
“Chang intended to sell the secrets for one
million dollars” vs. “The assets of such a
company would be worth an estimated one
million dollars”
Eppie Chang v. WNDU
Chang lived in Portage, Michigan

Worked at Miles Laboratories in Elkhart,
Indiana
Sued WNDU for $65-million
Sued Notre Dame for $65-million
Sued the Elkhart Truth for $65-million
Filed in Federal Court – South Bend
Eppie Chang v. WNDU
Lessons learned:
Truth is a defense
A little diligence would have prevented a
world of headaches
Be prepared to discuss your story (and
sources) with your editor/manager
Discovery process is a pain
Geography matters
Invasion of Privacy
(4 types)
Intrusion
Publicizing Private Matters
Publicizing in a False Light
Appropriation
Intrusion
Wrongful use of tape recorders,
microphones, cameras, and other
electronic recording or eavesdropping
devices.
Trespassing.
Misrepresentation to gain access to a
place or person on private property.
ABC 20/20 - Food Lion; 60 Minutes -
Charter Hospitals
Publicizing Private Matters
Sensational disclosures about a person’s

health, sexual activity, social or economic
affairs, etc.
Events that occur in public, no matter
how intimate or embarrassing, are not
actionable.
Publicizing in a False Light
Closely related to libel law because it

must include an element of falsity.
Most often occurs when trying to
condense or fictionalize actual events
(docudramas or thinly disguised
biographies, for example).
Most states require proof of intent by
publisher to create a false impression --
not accidental.
Appropriation
Use of a person’s name, likeness, image,

or personality without permission for
commercial purposes or for one’s own
benefit.
Celebrity impersonators (voice or image).
Current and past news events or
biographies of legitimate public interest
are exceptions.
Invasion of Privacy
Defenses
Consent
Expressed or tacit consent.
Generally required for commercial purposes.
Generally not required for newsgathering
activities.
Invasion of Privacy
Defenses
Newsworthiness
Public Figures: Must accept even unwelcome
publicity, even if it involves private life (to the
extent necessary in covering activities of
public interest). The public has a continuing
interest even after a public figure retires.
Private Figures: Exposure of private affairs
offensive to ordinary sensibilities and that
have no legitimate public interest. BUT,
unwitting participation in a news event is not
actionable.
Invasion of Privacy
Defenses
Constitutional Privilege (Truth). Used in

False Light cases.
Publication of accurate information on
matters of public interest, even if the
information is private, is protected
constitutionally from false light claims.
Package (PKG):
An edited, self-contained videotape report of
a news event or feature, complete with
pictures, soundbites, voice-over narration,
and natural sounds. The package is a form of
narrative story telling with a beginning,
middle, and ending.
Writing Packages
Elements of a Package:
Focus or Commitment
Beginning:
Anchor (or Studio) Intro
Package Lead:
• Visual Lead (+ nat. sound)
• Narrative Lead
Middle:
3-4 Main Points (stay focused!)
Writing Packages
End:
Final visual (+ nat. sound)
Final narrative
Anchor Tag:
A concluding thought
A bit of information not included in the
package
Provides transition to next story.
Writing Packages
Anchor Intro:
Write it first, not last!
Must pass the “so what” test. (WGAS)
Must include enough information to let
viewers know why they should watch (2-3
sentences minimum); but not so much that
they already know the outcome.
Can be written as “hard lead” or “soft lead.”
Writing Packages
Focus:
In one simple, vivid, declarative sentence:
What is this story about?
Why should viewers care?
What is the essential message your story
should convey?
What should viewers remember?
Writing Packages
Visual Lead:
Most important or compelling video.
Item most likely to be remembered later
(along with closing visual).
Natural Sound is critical!
Make me care. Make me want to pay
attention.
Writing Packages
Narrative Lead and Script:

Don’t force it. Be patient.
Write sparsely.
Don’t state the obvious – let pictures and
sound help you tell the story.
Know when to shut up.
Communicate with photographer/editor.
Stay focused.
Writing Packages
Anchor Tag:
Don’t repeat – unless it’s vital.
Use information that’s interesting, but
perhaps slightly off focus.
Write with an eye toward future
developments.
Provide closure / conclusion / transition.
The End
Ethics vs. Law
Law is generally morally neutral.

Procedural rather than substantive.
Based on private negotiation (legislative
process) rather than public edict.
In many cases, laws change from month to
month, or year to year.
Ethics, on the other hand, implies
consistency over long periods of time.
Ethics vs. Law
Law rarely imposes duties or suggests

virtues (i.e., “correct behaviors”).
Laws draw lines between permissible and
impermissible acts, but differences are not
necessarily based on moral principles.
Laws can prohibit or mandate behavior
through the power of enforcement (fines,
sanctions).
Law is primarily a system for resolving
disputes.
Ethics vs. Law
Legal system accepts one form of

reasoning -- Precedent and the Socratic
Method.
Ethics & law share an assumption that
decisions should be based on reasoning, but
the modes of reasoning may be far different.
Ethical debates arise from conflicting moral
assumptions; legal debates arise from
conflicting procedural interpretations.
Ethics vs. Law
Ethics has to do with the underlying

assumptions upon which decisions are
made. These assumptions can include
feelings about the nature of humankind,
whether people are inherently good or
bad, and the nature of our relationship to
one another.

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FTT 308 Introduction to

Differences among the Media (plural, not

Differences among the Media (plural, not

Differences among the Media (plural, not

Differences among the Media (plural, not

Executive Producer Assistant News Director

Executive Producer Assistant News Director

Executive Producer Assistant News Director

Executive Producer Assistant News Director

Executive Producer Assistant News Director

No satellite coordination

Originally very bulky - not very portable

1/4 sec. delay between

Transponder = “transmitter / responder”

Viet Nam War

Real Time - No Delay

Not as easy as it looks

Traditional Japanese poetry

All that remains of

It is similar to writing broadcast news copy:

 Limited space Limited time

 Limited space Limited time

 Unlimited review One-pass-through medium

 Limited space Limited time

 Unlimited review One-pass-through medium

Lead sentence: Most Important

Do Not “Write Down” to Your Audience!

The Elkhart County Parks Board

The county is also waiting for a

There’s no estimate at this time how

In health news today…

Experts say further study is

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verbs (A journalist’s mortar)

Verb = A word that expresses an action or

Verb = A word that expresses an action or

Verb = A word that expresses an action or a

Action Verbs can be Transitive or

Intransitive Verbs do not take a Direct

All Transitive Verbs Have 2 Voices:

All Transitive Verbs Have 2 Voices:

A verb phrase (at least 2 words)

Relocate the Actor -- usually by making

Relocate the Actor -- usually by making

Relocate the Actor -- usually by making the

Relocate the Actor -- usually by making the

Change the Verb:

Change the Verb:

Change the Verb:

Is the passive voice grammatically

The mountain was easily climbed by the