CHAPTER 6

SOIL
Chapter 6: Soil
- Loose covering of broken rocky material
and decaying organic matter overlying the
bedrock of the Earth’s surface
- Composed of minerals, organic matter
(called humus) derived from decomposed
plants and organisms, living organisms,
air, and water
Soil
- Soils differ according to climate, parent material, rainfall,
relief of the bedrock, and the proportion of organic matter
- The study of soils is pedology
Chapter 6: Soil
Soil Profile – a vertical cross-section from ground-level to
the bedrock on which the soil sits. The profile is divided
into layers called horizons
A horizon (topsoil)
- The uppermost layer, consisting
primarily of humus and living
organism and some mineral material
- Most of soluble material has been
leached from this layer or washed
down to the B horizon
Chapter 6: Soil
Soil Profile – a vertical cross-section from ground-level to
the bedrock on which the soil sits. The profile is divided
into layers called horizons
B horizon (subsoil)
- The layer where most of the
nutrients accumulate and is enriched
in clay materials
Chapter 6: Soil
Soil Profile – a vertical cross-section from ground-level to
the bedrock on which the soil sits. The profile is divided
into layers called horizons
C horizon
- The layer of weathered parent
material at the base of the soil
Chapter 6: Soil

PODZOL CHERNOZEM
Chapter 6: Soil
- Common in coniferous forest
regions where precipitation exceeds
evaporation
- The A horizon consists of a very
thin litter of organic material
producing a poor humus
- Needles take a long time to
decompose
- The relatively heavy precipitation
PODZOL causes leaching of minerals as
nutrients are washed downwards
Chapter 6: Soil

- Found in grassland regions, where

evaporation exceeds precipitation
- The A horizon is rich in humus due
to decomposition of a thick litter of
dead grass at the surface
- Minerals and moisture migrate
upward due to evaporation, leaving
the B and A horizons enriched
CHERNOZEM
Chapter 6: Soil

The organic content of soil is widely variable, ranging

from zero in some desert soils to almost 100% in peats.
Soils influence the type of agriculture employed in a
particular region – light well-drained soils favorable
farming, whereas heavy clay soils give rise to lush pasture
land.
Chapter 6: Soil
Soil Creep – gradual movement of
soil down a slope in response to
gravity. This eventually results in a
mass downward movement of soil on
the slope
Evidence of soil creep includes the
formation of terracettes (steplike
ridges along the hillside), leaning
walls and telegraph poles, and trees
that grow in a curve to counteract
progressive leaning.
Chapter 6: Soil

Soil depletion – decrease in soil quality over time.

Causes include loss of nutrients caused by overfarming,
erosion by wind, and chemical imbalances caused by
acid rain
Chapter 6: Soil
Soil Erosion
- The wearing away and redistribution
of Earth’s soil layer
- It is caused by the action of water,
wind, and ice, and also by improper
methods of agriculture. If unchecked, soil erosions
results in the formation of deserts (desertification) or
other vegetation often. It has been estimated that 20% of
the world’s cultivated topsoil was lost between 1950 and
1990
Chapter 6: Soil
If the rate of erosion exceeds the rate of soil formation
(from rock and decomposing organic matter), then the land
will become infertile. The removal of forests (deforestation) or
other vegetation often leads to serious soil erosion,
because
plant roots bind soil, and without
them the soil is free to wash or
blown away, as in the American
dust bowl. The effect is worse on
hillsides, and there has been
devastating loss of soil where
forests have been cleared from
mountainsides, as in Madagascar.
Chapter 6: Soil
Improved agricultural practices such as contour ploughing
are needed to combat soil erosion. Windbreaks, such as
hedges or strips planted with coarse grass, are valuable, and
organic farming can reduce soil erosion by as much as 75%.
Soil degradation and erosion are becoming as serious as
the loss of the rainforest. It is estimated that more than 10%
of the world’s soil lost a large amount of its natural fertility
during the latter half of the 20th century. Some of the worst
losses are in Europe, where 17% of the soil is damage by
human activity such as mechanized farming and fallout from
acid rain. Mexico and Central America have 24% of soil highly
degraded mostly as a result of deforestation.
Chapter 6: Soil
Spread of deserts by changes in
climate or by human-aided
processes. Desertification can
sometimes be reversed by special
planting (marram grass, trees) and
by the use of water-absorbent
Desertification plastic grains, which, added to
the Around 30% of land worldwide
soil, enable crops to be grown.
is affected by desertification (1998), including 1 million
hectares in Africa and 1.4 million hectares in Asia.
Natural causes of desertification include decreased rainfall,
increased temperatures, lowering of the water table, and soil
erosion.
Chapter 6: Soil

The human-aided processes leading to desertification

include overgrazing, destruction of forest belts, and
exhaustion of the soil by intensive cultivation without
restoration of fertility – all of which may be prompted by
the pressures of an expanding population or by
concentration in land ownership. About 135 million people
are directly affected by desertification, mainly in Africa, the
Indian subcontinent, and South America. The Sahel region
in Africa is one example.