(macroevolution) Defining a Species • Taxonomy: branch of biology that names and classifies species and groups into broader categories (DKPCOFGS) • Linnaeus: botanist that introduced the binomial system of naming organisms • Scientific name: Genus species – Ex. Humans: Homo sapiens Definitions of Species • Biological species concept: based on reproductive isolation • Morphological species concept: based on physical traits (morphology) • Ecological species concept: based on ecological niches • Phylogenetic species concept: based on common ancestors Reproductive Barriers • Pre-zygotic Barriers: prevent mating or fertilization between species • Post-zygotic Barriers: operate after hybrids are formed Pre-zygotic Barriers • Temporal: timing • Habitat: live in different places • Behavioral: no sexual attraction • Mechanical: parts don’t fit • Gametic: gametes die or fail to unite Post-zygotic Barriers • Reduced hybrid viability: hybrids fail to develop • Reduced hybrid fertility: hybrids are produced, but are sterile • Hybrid breakdown: hybrids are fertile, but their offspring (the next generation) are weak or infertile Mechanisms of Speciation • Allopatric speciation: populations are separated by a geographical barrier; is the most common mechanism of speciation • Sympatric speciation: no geographic isolation; mating and gene flow is reduced by factors such as polyploidy, habitat selection, and sexual selection Allopatric Speciation Sympatric Speciation Hybrid Zones • Regions where members of different species meet and mate, producing some hybrid offspring • Ex. Baltimore orioles and Bullock’s orioles • Results? – Fusion: speciation process reverses due to gene flow – Stability: each species maintains its own integrity, but hybrids are still produced Male Baltimore oriole (left); Female Bullock’s oriole (right) When do most new species arise? • After mass extinctions, previously occupied niches are opened. • New species can now fill new habitats or roles in their community. • The evolution of many diverse species from a common ancestor is called adaptive radiation. Ex. The radiation of mammals after the extinction of the dinosaurs Adaptive Radiation How fast can speciation occur? • Punctuated equilibrium: long periods of little change (equilibrium), punctuated by abrupt episodes of speciation • Gradualism: differences gradually evolve in populations as they become adapted to their local environments • The fossil record tends to support the punctuated model more than gradualism • How long does speciation take? A survey of 84 groups of plants and animals show a time range of 4,000 to 40 million years with an average of around 6.5 million years and rarely less than 500,000 years.