Open Channel Flow

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW
1 2 1 2

hf hf
V12 V12
energy gradient energy line
2g 2g
V22 V22
2g 2g
h1 Water surface h1 Hydraulic gradient

h2
h2 Centre of pipe
Channel bottom

z1 z1
z2 z2

datum datum

Comparison between flow in open channel (left) and

flow in pipe (right)
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
• Liquid (water) flow with a free surfaces (interface
between water and air)
• relevant for
– natural channels: rivers, streams
– engineered channels: canals, sewer
lines or culverts (partially full), storm drains
• of interest to hydraulic engineers
– location of free surface
– velocity distribution
– discharge - stage (depth) relationships
– optimal channel design
 Topics in Open Channel Flow
• Uniform Flow
– Discharge-Depth relationships
• Channel transitions
– Control structures (sluice gates, weirs…)
– Rapid changes in bottom elevation or cross section
• Critical, Subcritical and Supercritical Flow
• Hydraulic Jump
• Gradually Varied Flow
– Classification of flows
– Surface profiles
 Classification of Flows
• Steady and Unsteady (temporal)
– Steady: velocity at a given point does not change with
time
• Uniform, Gradually Varied, and Rapidly Varied
(spatial)
– Uniform: velocity at a given time does not change
within a given length of a channel
– Gradually varied: gradual changes in velocity with
distance
• Laminar and Turbulent
– Laminar: flow appears to be as a movement of thin
layers on top of each other
– Turbulent: packets of liquid move in irregular paths
 CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
respect to time and space

Flow

Steady flow Unsteady Flow)

Q
Refer to time, t
V V Q
0 & 0 0 & 0
t t t t

Uniform Varied Uniform Varied Refer to space, x

V A V A
0 & 0 0 & 0
x x x x

Gradually Varied Rapidly Varied Gradually Varied Rapidly Varied

Flow Flow Flow Flow
Momentum and Energy Equations
• Conservation of Energy
– “losses” due to conversion of turbulence to heat
– useful when energy losses are known or small
• Contractions
– Must account for losses if applied over long distances
• We need an equation for losses
• Conservation of Momentum
– “losses” due to shear at the boundaries
– useful when energy losses are unknown
• Expansion
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Within some problem domain, the amount of

energy remains constant and energy is neither
created nor destroyed. Energy can be converted
from one form to another (potential energy can
be converted to kinetic energy) but the total
energy within the domain remains fixed.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
BERNOULLI’S
EQUATION

The equation states that the static pressure ps in the flow plus the dynamic
pressure, one half of the density r times the velocity V squared, is equal to a
constant throughout the flow. We call this constant the total pressure pt of
the flow.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Based on Newton Law II about
movement, it is stated that the
Fa change of momentum per unit of
time is equal to resultante of all
W sin
P1
V1

P2
forces worked on the considered
V
Ff 2
segment

1

 F  PQ  V.
W cos 2 
W


P1  P2  W sin   Ff  Fa  PQV2  V1 
where : P = hydrostatic pressure
W = weight of volume within segment (1)-(2)
So = bed slope
Fa = air pressure on the free water surface =0
Ff = friction force due to bed roughness.
 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

For uniform flow :

P1 = P2, V1 = V2, and

Ff  .P.dx

Then the above equation become

:
W.Sin  .P.dx

  .R.So
 Open Channel Flow:
Discharge/Depth Relationship
h l d
0  
• Given a long channel of 4l

constant slope and cross

section find the relationship
A
between discharge and depth
P
• Assume
– Steady Uniform Flow - no acceleration
– prismatic channel (no change in geometry with distance)
• Use Energy, Momentum, Empirical or Dimensional
Analysis?
• What controls depth given a discharge?
• Why doesn’t the flow accelerate? Force balance
 Steady-Uniform Flow: Force Balance

τoP Δ x
Shear force =________ V2 Energy grade line
2g
Hydraulic grade line
Wetted perimeter = P
__ b
ρgAΔx sinθ
Gravitational force = ________ c
Δx
Ax sin    o Px  0
a
A d
o   sin
P Shear force
W cos θ θ
θ
A
=Rh Hydraulic radius W
P
sin 
S  sin 
 o  R h S o W sin θ
cos 

Relationship between shear and velocity? Turbulence

___________
 Open Conduits:
Dimensional Analysis

• Geometric parameters
A
– ___________________
Hydraulic radius (Rh) Rh 
P
– ___________________
Channel length (L)
– ___________________
Roughness (e)
• Write the functional relationship
V
Fr 
gh

• Does Fr affect shear? _________

No!
 Chezy Equation (1768)
• Introduced by the French engineer Antoine
Chezy in 1768 while designing a canal for
the water-supply system of Paris
2g
V = C Rh S f compare V= S f Rh
l
where C = Chezy coefficient
0.0054 > l > 0.00087 For a pipe
m m
60 < C < 150 d  4 Rh
s s 0.022 > f > 0.0035
where 60 is for rough and 150 is for smooth
also a function of R (like f in Darcy-Weisbach)
 Darcy-Weisbach Equation (1840)
f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
 d 2 
 
l V2 l V2 A  4  d
Rh   
hl = f hl = f P d 4
d 2g 4 Rh 2 g

l V2 V2 8g
Sfl = f S f Rh = f V= S f Rh
4 Rh 2 g 8g f
1   2.5 
 2 log    Similar to Colebrook
f  12 Rh Re f 
For rock-bedded streams 1
f 2
where d84 = rock size larger than 84% of the   Rh  
rocks in a random sample 1.2  2.03log   
  d84  
 Manning Equation (1891)
• Most popular in U.S. for open channels

1 (MKS units!)
V  R 2/3
h S1/2
o
n Dimensions of n? T /L
1/3

1.49 2/3 1/2 Is n only a function of roughness? NO!

V R h So
n (English system)
Bottom slope
Q  VA

1
Q AR 2h/3 S 1o/2 very sensitive to n
n
 Values of Manning n

Lined Canals n
Cement plaster 0.011
Untreated gunite 0.016
Wood, planed 0.012 n = f(surface roughness,
Wood, unplaned 0.013
Concrete, trowled 0.012 channel irregularity,
Concrete, wood forms, unfinished 0.015 stage...)
Rubble in cement 0.020
Asphalt, smooth 0.013
Asphalt, rough 0.016
Natural Channels
Gravel beds, straight 0.025
Gravel beds plus large boulders 0.040
Earth, straight, with some grass 0.026
Earth, winding, no vegetation 0.030
Earth , winding with vegetation 0.050

n  0.031d 1 / 6 d in ft d = median size of bed material

n  0.038d 1 / 6 d in m
Trapezoidal Channel 1
Q  AR 2h/3 S 1o/2
n
• Derive P = f(y) and A = f(y) for a trapezoidal
channel
• How would you obtain y = f(Q)?

A  yb  y 2 z
1 y
z
b

Use Solver!
 Flow in Round Conduits

ry  = (r sin q )(r cos q )

  arccos 
 r 

radians
A  r 2   sin  cos 
r
T  2r sin 

P  2r A y
Maximum discharge
0.938d
when y = ______ T
 Velocity Distribution

1  y
v y  V  gdS0 1  ln  For channels wider than 10d
  d
k » 0.4 Von Kármán constant 2 0.8d
V = average velocity 1.5

depth [m]
1
0.4d
d = channel depth 0.5

0 0.2d
-0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5

At what elevation does the

V
velocity equal the average v(y) [m/s]

velocity?
y 1
- 1 = ln
d
y= d 0.368d
e
 Open Channel Flow: Energy Relations

V12 hL = S f Dx
velocity head 1
2g energy
______
V22
2 grade line
2g
hydraulic
_______
y1 grade line
y2

S o x

x

Bottom slope (So) not necessarily equal to EGL slope (Sf)

 Energy Relationships

p1 V12 p2 V22 Pipe flow

+ z1 + a 1 = + z2 + a 2 + hL z - measured from
g 2g g 2g
horizontal datum

From diagram on previous slide...

2 2 Turbulent flow (  1)
V1 V2
y1 + So Dx + = y2 + + S f Dx y - depth of flow
2g 2g
Energy Equation for Open Channel Flow
V12 V22
y1 + + So Dx = y2 + + S f Dx
2g 2g
 Specific Energy
• The sum of the depth of flow and the velocity
head is the specific energy:
+ pressure
V2 y - _______
potential energy
E  y 
2g V2
- _______
kinetic energy
2g
E1  S o x  E2  S f x

If channel bottom is horizontal and no head loss y

E1  E2
For a change in bottom elevation
E1 - Dy = E2
 Specific Energy
In a channel with constant discharge, Q

Q  A1V1  A 2 V2
V2 Q2
E  y E  y where A=f(y)
2g 2gA 2

Consider rectangular channel (A = By) and Q = qB

q2 q is the discharge per unit width of channel
E  y 
2gy 2 y A
3 roots (one is negative)
B
2
How many possible depths given a specific energy? _____
 Specific Energy: Sluice Gate
10
9
sluice gate q = 5.5 m2/s
y1 8 EGL y2 = 0.45 m
7 q2
6
E  y  V2 = 12.2 m/s
2gy 2 1
y

5
4
E2 = 8 m
3 vena contracta
2
1 2
y2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E1  E2
E
Given downstream depth and discharge, find upstream depth.
alternate depths (same specific energy)
y1 and y2 are ___________
Why not use momentum conservation to find y1?
 Specific Energy: Raise the Sluice Gate

4
sluice gate

3
y1 EGL
y

2
1 2
y2 1
E1  E2
0
0 1 2 3 4 q2
E E  y 
2gy 2
as sluice gate is raised y1 approaches y2 and E is minimized:
Maximum discharge for given energy.
 Step Up with Subcritical Flow
Short, smooth step with rise Δy in channel
Given upstream depth and discharge find y2
4
Energy conserved
4 3

y
2

1
y

1 0
0 1 y 2 3 4
0 E E1 = E2 + Dy
0 1 2 3 4
E
Is alternate depth possible? NO!
__________________________
Calculate depth along step.
 Max Step Up
Short, smooth step with maximum rise y in channel
What happens if the step is 4

y1 increases
increased further?___________ 3
4

y
2
3

1
y

0
1
0 1 2 3 4
y
E
0 E1 = E2 + Dy
0 1 2 3 4
E
 Step Up with Supercritical flow

Short, smooth step with rise Δy in channel

Given upstream depth and discharge find y2
4

4 3

y
3 2

1
y

1 0
0 1 y 2 3 4
0 E E1 = E2 + Dy
0 1 2 3 4
E
What happened to the water depth?______________________________
Increased! Expansion! Energy Loss
 4

y
yc
Critical Flow 1

0
0 1 2 3 4
E

Find critical depth, yc Arbitrary cross-section

dE
 0 T
dy dy
Q2
E  y  A=f(y) y A dA
2gA2 P
dE Q 2 dA
= 1- 3
=0 dA = Tdy T=surface width
dy gA dy
More general definition of Fr
Q 2Tc 2
QT V 2T A
1   Fr 2
 Fr 2
=D Hydraulic Depth
gAc3 gA3 gA T
 Critical Flow:
Rectangular channel
Q 2 Tc
1 T
gA 3c T  Tc

Q  qT Ac  ycT Ac yc

q2T3 q2
1 3 3  3
gy c T gy c

1 /3
 q2 
y c   
 g  Only for rectangular channels!

q  gy 3c Given the depth we can find the flow!

 Critical Flow Relationships:
Rectangular Channels
q 
1 /3  Vc2 y 2c 
y   
2 3
y c    c

 g   g  because q  Vc yc

Vc
1 inertial force Kinetic energy
y cg Froude number
gravity force Potential energy

yc 
Vc2 yc Vc2
g  velocity head = 0.5 (depth)
2 2g
V2 yc yc 
2
Ey E  yc  E
2g 2 3
 Critical Depth

• Minimum energy for a given q

– Occurs when dE
dy
=___
0 Vc2 yc
=
– When kinetic = potential! ________
2g 2
– Fr=1 4

Vc q T
Fr = = =Q 3
3

yc g 3
gyc gA

y
2

– Fr>1 = ______critical
Super 1

– Fr<1 = ______critical
Sub 0
0 1 2 3 4
E
 4

y
Critical Flow 1

0
0 1 2 3 4
E

dE
• Characteristics  0
dy
– Unstable surface
– Series of standing waves Difficult to measure depth
• Occurrence
– Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
– Channel Controls (rapid changes in cross-section)
– Over falls
– Changes in channel slope from mild to steep
• Used for flow measurements
– ___________________________________________
Unique relationship between depth and discharge
 Broad-Crested Weir
1/ 3 yc
q 2  E
yc    H
g  yc
 
P Broad-crested
q  gy 3
c Q = b gyc3 weir
2
yc  E Hard to measure yc
3
3/ 2
2 E measured from top of weir
Qb g  E 3/ 2
3
3/ 2
2  Cd corrects for using H rather
Q  Cd b g  H 
3  than E.
 Broad-crested Weir: Example
• Calculate the flow and the depth upstream.
The channel is 3 m wide. Is H approximately
equal to E? H E
yc m
yc=0.3
0.5 Broad-crested
weir

How do you find flow?____________________

Critical flow relation

Energy equation
How do you find H?______________________
Solution
 Could a hydraulic jump be laminar?

Hydraulic Jump

• Used for energy dissipation

• Occurs when flow transitions from
supercritical to subcritical
– base of spillway
– Steep slope to mild slope
• We would like to know depth of water
downstream from jump as well as the
location of the jump
• Which equation, Energy or Momentum?
 Hydraulic Jump
M 1  M 2  W  Fp1  Fp2  Fss Conservation of Momentum
hL
EGL
M 1 x  M 2 x  Fp1 x  Fp2 x

y2
M 1 x  V12 A 1
y1
M 2 x  V22 A 2
L
QV1  QV2  p1 A 1  p2 A 2
r gy
Q 2 Q 2 gy 1 A 1 gy 2 A 2
p= Q
    2 V
A1 A2 2 2 A
 Hydraulic Jump:
Conjugate Depths

For a rectangular channel make the following substitutions

A  By Q  By1V1
V1 Froude number
Fr1 =
gy1

Much algebra y2 
y1
 1  1  8 Fr12 
2
y2 - 1 + 1 + 8 Fr12
=
y1 2
valid for slopes < 0.02
 Hydraulic Jump:
Energy Loss and Length
Energy Loss E1  E2  hL
q2  y2  y1 3
E  y  algebra hL 
2gy 2 4 y1 y2
significant energy loss (to turbulence) in jump

Length of jump
No general theoretical solution
Experiments show
L  6 y2 for 4.5 < Fr1 < 13
 Specific Momentum

gy1 A1 Q 2 gy2 A2 Q 2 5
E
  
2 A1 2 A2 1:1 slope
4
M
y1 A1 Q 2 y2 A2 Q 2
   3
2 A1 g 2 A2 g

y12 q 2 y22 q 2 y 2
  
2 y1 g 2 y2 g
1
When is M minimum? E
0
1
dM q 2
q  3
2
2 3 4 5 6 7
 y 2 y    Critical depth!
dy y g  g  E or M