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Vrms Velocity
0.0 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 0.0 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
Vint
Time
Time
1.0 1.0
Vrms
Vave
2.0 2.0
D. S. Macpherson
Basic Geophysics - Course Outline
E. Data processing
A-1
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves
Time
Animation link
Source of elastic waves
Depth
Reflected
energy
Transmitted
energy
Source and
receiver location
Depth
Reflected
Reflection energy
at normal incidence
A-4
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves
Source and
receiver location
Time
Recorded
reflection event
A-5
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves
Time
A-6
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves
Reflected
energy
Transmitted
energy
Source and
receiver location
Reflected
Depth
energy
Reflection
at normal incidence
A-8
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves
Source and
receiver location
Reflected
Depth
Time
energy
Display location
for the recorded event
A-9
A. The nature of the seismic image - What is propagating
Ground force
Downward
particle motion
Increased
pressure
Ground force
compression
Reflected
Propagation of a compressional wave
A - 11
A. The nature of the seismic image - The old concept of a stacked trace
Receivers Source
Reflected Propagating
ray wave front
A - 12
A. The nature of the seismic image - The old concept of a stacked trace
Source
Direction of
survey
Source
Source
Source
A - 13
A. The nature of the seismic image - The old concept of a stacked trace
Common
mid-point
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Stacked trace
Time
Time for
the normal
incident ray
at zero offset
= To
A - 14
A. The nature of the seismic image - The old concept of a stacked trace
Increasing
shot to receiver
offset
Near Far Near Far
trace trace trace trace
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Stacked trace
Time
Time for
the normal
incident ray
Curve of at zero offset
“normal = To
moveout”
Moveout corrected
traces A - 15
A. The nature of the seismic image - The problem with stacking
Common Moveout
mid-point Stacked
Common mid-point corrected
gather trace
traces
A - 16
A. The nature of the seismic image - The problem with stacking
Un-migrated Migrated
stacked data image
Un-migrated Migrated
image surface image surface
A - 17
A. The nature of the seismic image - The problem with stacking
Common Moveout
mid-point Stacked
Common mid-point corrected
gather trace
S R traces
Trajectory of possible
reflection points
Common mid-point
S R
Trajectory of possible
reflection points
A - 19
A. The nature of the seismic image - The problem with stacking
Source Receiver
Location Location
Traces Migrated
in time traces
Common mid Common image Stacked
Common mid-point trace
point point
Image point
window
3D bin size
compression
Reflected
compression
Incident
Reflecting
interface
A - 22
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections
Layer 1 impedance
Reflected wave = Velocity(1) x Density(1)
Incident wave = Z1
Layer 2 impedance
= Velocity(2) x Density(2)
Transmitted wave
= Z2
A - 23
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections
Reflection coefficient
Reflected wave
Reflected wavelet amplitude
Incident wave R=
Incident wavelet amplitude
Z2 - Z1
R=
Z2 + Z1
Transmitted wave
A - 24
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections
V2 = 7500’ / Sec
D2 = 2.42 Sg
Reflection coefficient
Transmitted wave (V2 x D2) - (V1 x D1)
R=
(V2 x D2) + (V1 x D1)
A - 25
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections
V2 = 7500’ / Sec
D2 = 2.42 Sg
Transmitted wave
R = .16
84% T=1-R
T = .84
A - 27
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections
A - 28
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections
Seismic
Data
Landmark
Best Fit Synthetic Seismogram Geographix
A - 29
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time
0.0 0.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.5 1.0
Depth (Kilometers)
Time (Seconds)
2.0
1.5
2.5
2.0
3.0
3.5 2.5
4.0
3.0
4.5
A - 30
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time
A - 31
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time
A - 32
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time
Dis
t an Exercise link
ce
n ce
sta
Di
Time
A - 33
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time
3D data
example
Inline link
Crosslink link
Time 1.640
Trace No. 4860 4900 4940 4980 5020 5060 5100 5140 Trace No.
1400 1400
1440 1440
1480 1480
1520 1520
1560 1560
1600 1600
1640 1640
1680 1680
3.0
3.5
15,000
4.0
A - 36
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time
Mid
Deep
Depth (meters)
A - 37
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time
Parallel Geoscience A - 39
B. Seismic data acquisition - Section Outline
B-1
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration
B-2
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration
Air compressor
system
GPS receiver
Depth controller
B-3
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration
Photo link
B-4
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration
Depth controller
Streamer reel
B-5
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration
Pressure sensitive
hydrophone Plastic Wrapped electrical wire
spacer and optical fiber
A to D converter
B-6
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration
Active recording
streamer
Gun arrays
Movie link
B-8
B. Seismic data acquisition - Arrays to attenuate noise
Single
source
Horizontally
propagating
noise
B-9
B. Seismic data acquisition - Arrays to attenuate noise
B - 10
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine bin gathering
Source array
Source array
Midpoints
Receiver arrays
25 X 25 meter bins
Animation 1 Animation 2
25 X 25 meter bins
Recording truck
Vibroseis units
Geophone arrays
B - 13
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration
B - 14
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration
Flexible two
wire cable
Suspension
Plastic
spring
casing
Suspended
coil
Metal
casing Strong
magnet
Ground
spike
Moving coil geophone
components
B - 15
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration
2 cm.
“VectorSeis” sensor by I/O Inc. Sercel 3 Component Digital
MEMS Micro Electro Mechanical Geophone
System
B - 16
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration
A Vibroseis array
B - 18
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land bin gathering
B - 22
B. Seismic data acquisition - On bottom cable
Spheroid
(mathematical approximation)
Pole Pole
Latitude lines
Equator
0
6 Wedge of the earth Cylindrical approximation
B - 25
B. Seismic data acquisition - Surveying and mapping
Pole Pole
Latitude lines
Equator
Longitude lines
Latitude lines
0
6 zone boundary
0
6 zone boundary
Equator Equator
Map origin
Central meridian
B - 27
B. Seismic data acquisition - Surveying and mapping
X,Y location
Y is the distance in meters
north of the equator
X is the distance in meters
east of the central meridian
The central meridian is
Longitude lines given a “false easting” of
1,000,000 meters so that
the X never has negative
numbers
Latitude lines
0
6 zone boundary
0
6 zone boundary
Equator Equator
Map origin
Central meridian
B - 28
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Section Outline
Wavelet interference
C-1
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Generating a wavelet
Land dynamite
Marine air gun
particle motion
Pressure or
Time
12 32
Amplitude
4 48
Frequency (Hz.) Time (Sec.)
Time origin
C-3
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Minimum and zero phase
C-4
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Minimum and zero phase
Zero phase
Mixed phase
Minimum phase
C-5
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Minimum and zero phase
Low
velocity
density
High
velocity
density
C-7
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution
Zero phase
Lithology Impedance Reflection wavelets
coefficients
High
velocity
density
Low
velocity
density
High
velocity
density
C-9
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution
0.0
Time (Sec.)
0.100
Reflection
amplitude
Wedge
Thickness
300 250 200 150 100 50
0.0
Time (Sec.)
0.100
Reflection
amplitude
Wedge
Thickness (feet)
300 250 200 150 100 50
Limit of resolution
(tuning zone)
0.0
Time (Sec.)
0.100
Reflection
amplitude
Wedge
Thickness (feet)
300 250 200 150 100 50
Zero phase
Lithology Impedance Reflection wavelets
coefficients
High
velocity
density
Low
velocity
density
High
velocity
density
Zero phase
wavelets
Tuning separation
in depth =
∆ T
X interval velocity
∆ T 2
Example:
If ∆ T = .020 Sec
and Vint = 8000’/Sec
the tuning thickness is 80 feet
C - 14
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution
C - 15
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution
C - 16
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution
C - 17
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Wavelets and resolution
4/12-32/48
FC=22 Hz
20 40 60
Frequency (Hz)
FC=32 Hz
20 40 60
Frequency (Hz) -.100 -.050 .050 .100
0.0 Time (Sec.)
10/22-42/60
C - 18
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Wavelets and resolution
Amplitude
Tuning Thickness
Wedge
Thickness 300 250 200 150 100 50
Amplitude
Tuning Thickness
Wedge
Thickness 300 250 200 150 100 50
C - 19
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Wavelets and resolution
20/25-31/40
FC=28 Hz
20 40 60
Frequency (Hz)
FC=28 Hz
20 40 60
Frequency (Hz) -.100 -.050 .050 .100
0.0 Time (Sec.)
3/8-48/60
Link to wavelet animation C - 20
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Wavelets and resolution
1.0 4/12-32/48
28 Hz Ricker
.8 wavelet
.6
28 Hz Ricker
.4 wavelet
.2
0 50 100
Frequency (Hz)
C - 21
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions
FNYQ 1
=
2∆ T
For a sample interval of .002 seconds ( 2 milliseconds)
1
FNYQ = = 250 Hz.
2 x .002
C - 22
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions
∆ T
“Aliased” frequency
C - 23
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions
20 Hz. sinusoid
.025 Sec.
C - 24
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions
C - 25
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions
Cycles / Sec.
= Hz.
C - 26
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions
Cycles / Sec.
= Hz.
Cycles / Sec.
= Hz.
Spatial Aliasing
Spatial Nyquest Frequency
Cycles / Sec.
= Hz.
12 32
Amplitude
4 48
Frequency
Center frequency = 22 Hz
Rule of thumb
The maximum spatial sampling is given by the center frequency
and the average velocity to the source of the diffraction:
∆ S = Vave
4 X Fc
For the example above with a Vave of 7000’/Sec and an Fc of 22 Hz.
DS is 80 feet or 24 meters.
C - 32
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions
Example
C - 33
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Data polarity
Pressure sensor
(hydrophone)
Positive
pressure
C - 35
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Data polarity
Low
velocity
density
High
velocity
density
C - 36
D. Seismic velocities - Section Outline
Two velocity models and how they relate to the geology of a basin
D-1
D. Seismic velocities - Two velocity models
D-2
D. Seismic velocities - Compactional velocity models
Velocity Velocity
Linear with time model
Depth
Time
V(t) = V0 + At Vint
Vint
t = time variable
A = “acceleration” factor
Vave
Vave
D-3
D. Seismic velocities - Compactional velocity models
Velocity Velocity
Linear with depth model
Depth
Time
V(d) = V0 + Kd Vint
Vint
d = depth variable
K = “compaction” factor
Vave
Vave
D-4
D. Seismic velocities - Velocity definitions
Σ 2 Z (n)
n=1
Vave (i) = Travel distance = i
Travel time
Σ T (n)
n=1
Σ 2
Z (n)
Vint (n)
n=1
D-6
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
D-7
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
SRO
Time =
Vint
Near Far Stacked
trace trace trace
Time
Vint
To
To
TT TT
2 Curve of
2 2 SRO “normal
TT = T0 + Vint moveout”
SRO
Time =
Vint
Near Far Stacked
trace trace trace
V1
Time
V2
V3
V4
V5
To
TT
2 Curve of
Key 2 2 SRO “normal
Concept TT = T0 + Vrms moveout”
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
Migration velocity
D - 10
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
Velocity
Migrated analysis
seismic image Vrms
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0
Time
1.0 1.0
2.0 2.0
D - 11
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
Vrms
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0 5,100
0.185 5,450
0.460 5,850
0.680 6,050
Time
1.0
1.120 6,275
1.775 6,680
2.0
2.210 6,900
D - 12
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
6,608 1,454
7,321 2,398
7,733 1,683
D - 13
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
6,608
1.0
Vrms 1.120 6,275 6,262
7,321
Vave
1.775 6,680 6,652
2.0 7,733
D - 14
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
Vrms Velocity
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0
Vint
Time
Time
1.0 1.0
Vrms
Vave
2.0 2.0
D - 15
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
Velocity
Migrated analysis
seismic image Velocity
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0
Vint
Time
1.0 1.0
Vrms
Vave
2.0 2.0
D - 16
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
Velocity
Migrated analysis
seismic image Depth (Ft)
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000
0.0 0.0
Time
1.0 1.0
2.0 2.0
D - 17
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
D - 18
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity
Iso-velocity plot
Locations of velocity analysis
160 148 136 124 112 100
5,000
5,500
6,000
6,500
D - 19
D. Seismic velocities - Measuring velocities in the well
Migrated Well
seismic image bore
0.0
Seismic
reference
datum
Time
Depth
1.0
Downhole
geophone
(array)
2.0
Mud pit
Depth
Seismic
reference
datum
Downhole
geophone
(array)
Log One-
412 meters
Depth Two-
depth Meters way time Interval
below way time
(below KB) (corrected) velocity
SRD from SRD
0 0
1727 SRD
112 0.0649 0 0.0000 300 meters
2520
242 0.1165 130 0.1032
2596
455 0.1985 343 0.2673
2826
680 0.2781 568 0.4265
2989
815 0.3233 703 0.5169
3272
1080 0.4043 978 0.6788
3533
1261 0.4555 1149 0.7813
3523
1457 0.5111 1345 0.8926
3332
1600 0.5541 1588 0.9784
2830
1645 0.5700 11533 1.0102
Interval velocity
Sonic
Linear log
two way
time scale
Non-linear
depth scale
Integrated
sonic log
D - 23
D. Seismic velocities - Measuring velocities in the well
Interval velocity
Sonic
Linear log
two way
time scale
Non-linear
depth scale
Integrated
sonic log
Check shot
values Time-based sonic log
D - 24
D. Seismic velocities - Depth conversion
Time
Vave(1)
1.0
Vave(2)
Vave(3)
2.0
D - 25
D. Seismic velocities - Depth conversion
Two-way time (from 3D survey) Average velocity map (from velocity surveys)
Well C Well C
Well B Well B
Well A Well A
Well C
D - 26
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
Pressure
Terzaghi relationship
Lithostatic EP = LP - HP
Pressure =
Depth Overburden
Pressure LP
Effective
Pressure
HP EP HP
Hydrostatic
Pressure =
Reservoir
Pressure
D - 27
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
Lithostatic
Normal
Depth
Depth
Pressure =
Compaction
Overburden
Trend
Pressure
Effective
Pressure Fracture
Fracture
Pressure
Pressure
Hydrostatic
Pressure =
Reservoir
Pressure
D - 28
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
Pressure
To fracture the formation, the reservoir
(pore) pressure must overcome the
minimum component of stress
The fractures are orthogonal to this
stress component
Lithostatic
Pressure =
Depth Overburden Maximum
Pressure Stress
Effective
Pressure Fracture
Fracture
Pressure
Pressure
Minimum
Stress
Hydrostatic
Pressure =
Reservoir Intermediate
Pressure Stress
Fractures
D - 29
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
Water
gradient
.4335
Ballpark rock
assumption
434 Psi
1.0
1000 Psi
Depth 1000’
2000’
D - 30
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
. .
. .
LP
5 5
.
LP .
Depth Feet X 1000
. HP .
RP
10 . 10 .
HP
RP
.
15
. 15 .
D - 31
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
. .
. .
LP
5 5
.
LP .
Depth Feet X 1000
. FP HP .
RP FP
10 . 10 .
HP
RP EP EP
.
15
. 15 .
D - 32
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
HP Hydrostatic Pressure = Reservoir Pressure and Pore Pressure when the section is
normally pressured
RP Reservoir Pressure = Usually the Hydrostatic Pressure or the Pore Pressure unless
the section is over or under pressured
EP Effective Pressure = The difference between the Overburden Pressure and the
Reservoir pressure or Pore Pressure
D - 33
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
Lithostatic
Normal
Depth
Depth
Pressure =
Compaction
Overburden
Trend
Pressure
Effective
Pressure Fracture
Fracture
Pressure
Pressure
Hydrostatic
Pressure =
Reservoir
Pressure
D - 34
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
GR TVD
A
0 api 200
Gamma
Ray
Normal
Resistivity Compaction
Trend
Acoustic 7000
8000
D - 35
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
Vrms Velocity
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0
Vint
Time
Time
1.0 1.0
Vrms
Vave
Top of
overpressure
2.0 2.0
D - 36
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
. .
. .
5
Mud Weight 5
Mud Weight
. .
Blowout Blowout
Depth Feet X 1000
. .
Overpressure Overpressure
10 . 10 .
15
. 15 .
D - 37
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
Casing PPG
Program 10 15 20
0
.
. Mud Weight
5
FP
Depth Feet X 1000
Overpressure
10 .
15 .
D - 38
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
Vint
Vave
Vrms
DIX Program
Showing the Effect of Overpressure
D - 39
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities
Example
Reservoir Pressure
Overburden
D - 43
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles
Ho
riz
on
Horizon 2 1
VSP geometry
Raw VSP
Ho
ri z
on
2
D - 44
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles
ks
Horizon 2
D - 45
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles
D - 46
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles
g
n-goin
Dow
Up-g
oing
Uncorrected VSP
D - 47
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles
Inversion
in a
Nutshell
D - 48
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles
D - 49
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles
Baker
Hughes
3D VSP
D - 50