Group members:

Tutor:
Pavel,91
Pawan, 92 Asst. Prof. Shukra Raj Paudel
Pawan, 93 Department of Civil Engineering
Peshal, 94 IOE, Tribhuvan University
Pintu,95
Prabesh, 96
Date: December 15, 2018
Students will obtain knowledge on following things

Types of pipes, pipe joints and their merits and demerits

Laying procedure of pipes

Different appurtenances such as valves, fittings

used in the pipelines

Fundamentals of break pressure tank

Operation and maintenance of water supply system

8. Conveyance 9. Valves and fittings
of water

9.1 Valves
8.1 Pipe
types 9.2 Fittings

8.2 Pipe 9.3 Break pressure tank

joints
9.4 Public standpost
8.3Laying
of pipes 9.5 O&M of water supply
system
8. Conveyance of Water
 Conveyance of water

Transportation of water to treatment plant and reservoir

distribution of water through conduits.

 Transmission: Source – Treatment plant - reservoir

 Distribution: Reservoir- Users Tap

Conveyance of water

Transportation of water is
done through conduits.

Selection of conduit may depend

upon factors such as:

 Topography
 Water quality
 Construction Practices
 Consumers Source:www.pininterest.com/water-pipes
 Economy
Types of conduits
Two main types of conduit.

Gravity Pressure
Conduit Conduit
Open channel flow with Pipe flow under pressure
free surface of water greater than atmospheric
exposed to atmosphere. pressure.
Eg. Canals, Aqueducts, Eg. Various types of pipes,
tunnels, etc. Pressure aqueducts, pressure
tunnels.
Types of conduits
Gravity Conduits
•Water flows under action
of gravity.

•Free surface is developed

where water surface is at
atmospheric pressure.
https://phys.org/news/2015-09-

•Hydraulic gradient line pressure.html

Fig: Gravity Couduit
coincide with water surface.
Types of conduit
Types of Open Channel Flow
Pressure conduit
Smoothness
Structural Strength

Light Weight
Durability Requirement
of good pipe
material

Resistance to Easy to Use

abrasion and
corrosion

Economical
Impervious
 Types of pipe material
Pipes are classified according to the material they are
made of. Pipes are made of following material.
Cast iron

Ductile iron

Steel

Cement concrete

Galvanized iron

Plastic
 I. Cast Iron Pipes (CI
pipes)
Highly resistant to corrosion
and can withstand high amount
pressure.

Cast iron are highly durable

and have lifespan of about
100 years.

Extensively used for

conveyance of water in w/s
system.
Sand molding process.

In sand casting, molten metal is poured into sand line moulds

That are set in either horizontal or vertical positions.
Centrifugal Process

In this process pipes may be cast either in a sand line

mould or
cooled metal mould.

Moulds are spun rapidly on a horizontal axis while molten

metal is poured.

Centrifugal process produces a finer grained and denser

structure with a more uniform thickness.

Cast iron pipes produced in sand mould are expensive,

centrifugally produced cast iron pipes are commonly used.
Centrifugal Process
 Manufacture of Cast iron pipes.
There are two main methods to manufacture cast iron pipes.

Ordinary Sand Centrifugal

molding process process
 Cast iron pipes

• Cast iron pipes are generally cast in length of 3-6

meters.
• Cast iron pipes are classified as LA, A and B according
to their thickness.
 Compared to pipes of Class LA, pipes of Class A have 10%
more thickness and pipes of Class B have 20% more
thickness.
 Class LA, A and B can withstand maximum hydraulic
pressure of 10, 12.5 and 16 kg/sq.cm
 Advantages of cast iron pipes
• Moderate cost
• Can withstand high internal pressure
• Highly resistant to corrosion
• Easy to join.
• Durability. As life span is about 100 years.
 Disadvantages of cast iron pipes

• Very heavy hence difficult

to handle and transport.

• Transportation cost is high.

• Pipes are fragile.

• Produces metallic taste in

water from iron leaching
into water due to rusting.
 Disadvantages of cast iron pipes

The water carrying capacity of these pipes decreases with

time because of increase in friction factor due to
tuberculation.
The capacity is reduced to as much as 65 %.
 Ductile iron pipe

Direct development of earlier cast

iron pipe.
Manufactured from ductile iron,
also called nodular iron or
spheroidal graphite iron.
Manufactured using centrifugal
casting in metal or resin lined
molds.
Protective internal linings and
external coating are applied to
prevent corrosion.
 Ductile iron pipe

As compared to pig iron, the ductile iron offers high resistance

against breakage due to impact and high tensile strength
nearly that of steel.
Hence, ductile pipes are stronger and can withstand greater
internal pressure.
Ductile iron pipes are more used than cast iron pipes nowadays.
 Advantages of ductile iron pipes

• Have greater ductility than cast

iron pipes hence called ductile
iron pipes.
• Have greater impact resistance
than cast iron pipes.
• Stronger and lighter than cast
iron pipes.
• Joining of these pipes are
Source:https://phys.org/news/2015-09-pressur
simple.
• Joints can accommodate
angular deflection.
• They have larger nominal inside
diameter than cast iron pipes.
 Disadvantages of ductile iron pipes
• Have similar rate of
corrosion to cast iron and
steel pipes.

• They require internal and

external protective systems.

• Polyethylene wrappings are

required to prevent
corrosion.
• Such wrappings can be
easily damaged.
• Life expectancy of
unprotected ductile
pipes depend upon
corrosiveness of soil.
Steel pipes
Fabricated by rolling the flat
steel plates to proper
diameter and riveting or
wielding the edges.
Joints may be transverse
and longitudinal or
transverse and spiral.
Welded pipes are more
commonly used as it is
stronger and smoother
than riveted pipes.

Source:https:www.drtuber.orgy./pipes/types-of-steel-pipes/:8GRM6fjhjfse-hguur674n
Steel pipes
• Light and strong to
withstand high
pressure.

• But cannot withstand

high external loads of
earth fillings, traffic,
etc.

• Also cannot withstand

high negative vacuum
pressure.
 https://www.justdial.com/Chandigarh/Punjab-Water-Supply-Sewarage-Board-Sector-27a/0172PX172
Advantages of steel pipes
• They are cheap.
• They are very strong to
withstand high internal
pressure.
• Pipes are flexible and can
be laid easily on curves.
• Light weight hence easy to
handle and transport.

X172-091028203603-H9K6_BZDET
• They are available in long
lengths with various types
of pipe joints.
 Disadvantages of steel pipes
• They cannot
withstand the external
loads such as of

www.constructionviewimage.com/loading-image-
earth fillings, traffic,
etc.
• Maintenance cost is
high
• They can be corroded
by slightly acidic or
alkaline water.
• They are likely to
deform in shape by Failure due to external loading
combined actions of
external and internal
loads.
Cement concrete pipes

Concrete pipes are made up of either PCC or RCC.

Plain concrete are normally used for heads up to 15 m and
reinforced concrete are normally used for heads up to
60m.
They are used to transport large quantity of water.
Although they are resistant to corrosion they are not used
much due to difficulty in making connections.
Manufacture of concrete pipes

https://www.justdial.com/Chandigarh/Punjab-Water-Supply-Sewarage-Board-
Sector

They are manufactured by using centrifugal force inside

the moulds by spinning rapidly.
So they have uniform consistency and thickness.
They can be manufactured in factory and later transport
or can be easily made in the site.
 Advantages of concrete pipes
• Durable with lifespan of 75 years.

• Suitable to external loading due to soil filling and traffic.

• Maintenance cost is low.

• They are highly resistant to corrosion.

• Inside of pipe is smooth and hence less friction factor.

• They can be casted in situ hence reduces the

transportation cost.
• Heavy and difficult to
handle.
• Difficult to repair the pipes.
• Unreinforced pipes cannot
withstand high internal
pressure and result in
tensile cracks.
• It is difficult to make
connections without faults.
• There may be leakage due
to porosity and shrinkage
cracks.

Source:https://www.wateronline.com/doc/making-municipal-water-supply-re
economical-and-sustainable-0001
 Source: http: http://www.superaquastore.com/product/gi-pipes-2/
Galvanized iron pipes
They are steel or wrought iron pipes dipped
in a protective zinc coating.
Such coating increases the quality of pipe
and resist corrosion.
Common in house pipe fittings, small
community where internal water
pressure is more than 100 m.
Commercial available sizes are 15, 20 and
25 mm diameter.
Sensitive to corrosion like cast iron.
Water with presence of free chlorine
can corrode pipe.
Advantages of galvanized iron pipes
• Light weighted and
can be easily
transported.
• Easy to join.
• Easily cut and
threaded.
• Can withstand
internal pressure
up to 180 m.
 Disadvantages of galvanized iron pipes
• Pipes are corroded
easily due to acidic and
alkaline water.
• Relatively less durable.
• Friction factor f
increases with time.
• Become very expensive
for diameter more than
80 mm.
• Liable to incrustation.
Plastic pipes
Plastic is a material consisting of a wide range of
synthetic or semisynthetic organic compounds
which are malleable and can be molded in any
form.

Well they are made from synthetic resin of high

molecular weight, polymerized from simple
compounds by heat, pressure and catalyst.
1) Polyethylene(PE) Pipes

2) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipes

3) Polypropylene Random (PPR) Copolymer Pipes

Source:canadapipe.com
Polytethylene(PE)
On the basis of the level of density(pressure that
pipes can sustain), it is divided in three types

1)High density polyethylene (HDPE)

2)Medium density polyethylene(MDPE)

3)Low density polyethylene(LDPE)

High density polyethylene pipe(HDPE)

• HDPE is known for its large strength-to-density

ratio.
• The density of HDPE can range from 930 to 970
kg/m3. Although the density of HDPE is only
marginally higher than that of low-density
polyethylene.
• HDPE has little branching, giving it stronger
intermolecular forces and tensile strength than
LDPE.
• It is more opaque and can withstand somewhat
higher temperatures (120 °C/ 248 °F for short
periods).
• These pipes are very smooth which reduces the loss of head
due to friction.

• These pipes are flexible and can be used in joints without

fittings.

• These pipes are corrosion free and chemically resistant.

• But these pipes have high thermal expansion , so unsuitable

for carrying hot water.

• Source:researchgate.com
• These are the pipes which are made from plastic and
vinyl combination.
• As these are durable, hard to damage and long lasting,
they are one of the most common materials used for
residential plumbing applications.
• PVC is an inert and stable material that resist corrosion.
• PVC piping is most commonly used in water systems ,
underground wiring and sewer lines.
• The main disadvantages of PVC pipes is that it is very
brittle that can crack,especially in cold climates.Also
can’t hold much hot water.
Polypropylene random(PPR)
copolymer pipe

 Polypropylene random copolymers are thermoplastic

resins produced through the polymerization of
propylene, with ethylene links introduced in the
polymer chain.

• TYPES-
1) Homopolymer
2)Random copolymer
3)Block copolymer
Advantages and disadvantages of PPR
pipes
• The main advantage of PPR is that these are
ecofriendly and fully recyclable.

• Taste and odour are neutral in PPR pipe.

• These have very good chemical resistance.

• PPR pipes are very smooth.

• PPR pipes are not for outdoor installation where

exposed to direct sunlight.
 Pipe joints
• Why does we need pipe joints?

• Since in the water supply system we need a network of

long pipelines for the distribution of water, so smaller
pipes are joined together during pipe laying to develop
long pipelines. So, joints are required.

• The selection of the pipe joints depends upon following

factors:
1)Internal pressure 2)Durability
3)Site condition 4)Water tightness
1)Socket and Spigot joints

2)Tyton joint

3)Flanged joint

4)Collar joint

5)Screwed socket joint

6)Expansion joint
Socket and spigot joint

• Socket and spigot joint is most commonly used for

cast iron, ductile iron and cement concrete pipes.
• Here,one end of pipe is enlarged to form a socket
shape called as bell or socket end of pipe.
• The other end is normal called spigot end.
• The spigot end of pipe in inserted in socket end of
preceding pipe till contact is made at base.
• A cotter is then driven tightly through a hole in order
to make the temporary connection between the two
rods.
• The annular space between them is fillled with
molten lead.

Source: silver boundary.com

Tyton joint
• In this joint , a rubber gasket is placed in the socket
end of the succeeding pipe.
• Here, the gasket gets compressed approximately
by 50% to its thickness which makes it water tight.
• Spigot end of pipe is suitably chamfered or rounded
off and lubricated for smooth entry of pipe.
• This joint is more flexible than socket and spigot
joint.
• This joint is commonly used for cast iron and
ductile iron pipes.

Source:researchgate.net
 Flanged joint
• This pipe in this case has flanges on both ends.
• The flanges are casted during the manufacturing of the
pipe and either welded or screwed at each end of pipe.
• This joint is mostly used for temporary pipelines such as
pumping stations, treatment plants, hydraulic
laboratories, boiler house etc.
• This joint is rigid in nature.
• It cant be used where deflections and vibrations are
expected.
• The flanged joint is most commonly used to join cast
iron,ductile iron , steel.

Source:www.pininterest.com/joints/flangedjoint-25743
Source:in.pininterest.com
• This type of joint is commonly used for jooining the
cement concrete pipes with plain ends.
• Before joining, the pipes are brought face to face at the
same level and a collar of slightly bigger diameter made
of RCC is placed over the joint.
• A rubber gasket between steel rings soaked in cement
paste is placed in groove.
• Then the annular space between the pipes and the collar
is filled up with cement mortar.
• The collar joints are used for sewers of large diameter.

Source: www.indiamart.com
• This joint is commonly used for joining the galvanized
iron (GI) pipes.
• The ends of the pipes are plain ends with screw threads
on the outer surface .
• This joints require a socket which has thread on inner
side.
• In order to make joint watertight, a few strands of jute or
zinc white are placed in thread of pipe ends and socket
are screwed and tightened so that pipes are held firmly
in position.

Source:alibaba.com
 Expansion joint
• This joint is adopted at places where pipes expands or
contracts due to variation in atmospheric temperature.
• Here the socket end is cast flanged and the spigot end is
plain.
• A flanged ring and a rubber gasket are placed in position
on the spigot end.
• Then the spigot end is inserted into the socket end nut
and bolts are tightened.

• Source: construction.phub.com
8.3 Laying of pipes

• Started after completion of all survey and design works,

preparation of drawings and specification, and
procurement of materials.
• Approval of residents living in the vicinity and different
government authorities such as Road development
authority(for major roads, provincial Road development
authority(for secondary roads), Irrigation Department,
etc. should be taken.
• Date of commencement and expected date of
completion is informed to the engineer.
Transportation of material to the site
• Pipes shall be transported to the site of laying and
stacked along the route.
• Padding shall be placed between coated pipes and
timber to avoid damage to the coating.
• Suitable gap during pipe stacking should be left at
proper intervals to permit access from one side to the
other.
• After the pipes have been transported to the site, each
pipe & special should be properly stacked at site in such
a manner so as not to distort their circularity or cause
any damage to their outer coating.
Source:nmotionfreight.com source:johnodwyerquilty.ie
The various steps involved in laying of pipes are as follows:

a) Setting b)Excavation c) Timbering

out of trench of trench

d) Preparation of e) Laying and jointing

subgrade of pipes

h)
f) Testing of g) Backfilling
Disinfection
pipes of trench
of pipeline
a) Setting out:

– Process of transferring the points of pipe alignment from

the drawing to the ground site.
– Survey equipments such as theodolite, staff, chain, tape,
etc, are used.
– Centre line of the proposed pipeline alignment is marked
on the ground.
– Stakes are driven 30 meters apart on straight stretches
and 7.5 meters apart on curves.
b) Excavation of Trench

• Trench is excavated along the alignment of the pipeline.

• Width of the trench should be 30 cm more than pipe’s
external diameter subjected to a minimum of 60 cm.
• Depth of trench should not be less than 90 cm from the
top of the pipe.
• Excavated earth is placed on one side of trench while
the pipes are stacked on the other side of trench.
• Materials that can be used for backfilling should be
protected from weather.
• Underground service lines should not be damaged
during excavation.
Source:alamy.com
c) Timbering of trench
• Done by installing wooden planks supported by
timber blocks, wedges and struts along the walls of
the trench .
• Done to prevent the loose soils from caving in.
• Not required in hard soils.

Source:utilitycontractoronline.com
d) Preparation of subgrade
• Done so that pipe can be bedded true to alignment line and
gradient for its entire length.
• Should have enough load bearing capacity to hold the
pipes
• Subgrade prepared in soil where settlement is unlikely by
ramming a layer of sand or clay to thickness of 15 to 30
cm.
• Subgrade prepared in soil where settlement is likely with a
cement concrete bed of 15 cm thick over a brick flat soling.
• Concrete benching provided to hold the pipes in position
firmly.
e) Laying and jointing of pipes:
• Pipes are lowered into the trench.
• Small diameter pipes are lowered manually while large
diameter pipes are lowered by cranes or other
mechanical devices.
• The pipes should be wiped clean to remove dirt or
foreign matters.
• Pipes are jointed properly with suitable type of joints.
• Pipe appurtenances such as valves, fittings, etc. are
fixed at proper places along the pipeline.
f) Testing of pipeline:
• Testing of pipelines:
 Helps anticipate future problems.
 Improves reliability.
 Provides information for maintenance plans and
decisions.
• Length of pipeline to be tested is generally less
than or equal to 500 meters.

Following are some tests carried out in pipeline

• Leakage Test
• Pressure Test
i)Pressure test:
• After Completion of each section of pipeline, it shall be
tested for water tightness.
•Done by closing each end by means of valve, blank
flange, cap or plug and filling the pipe with water.
•Air is expelled from the pipe.
•Higher of the pressure of about 0.5N/mm2 or maximum
working pressure plus 50 percent is applied.
• The pressure shall be raised gradually by means of a
hydro testing pump till the pressure is at least one and
half times the working pressure.
• The test pressure is specified by the authority
• The test is considered satisfactory if the pipeline
maintains the test pressure for at least half an hour.
Source:japanheartcebu.com
ii) Leakage test:
• Certain amount of water will be leaked from the
pipeline as a result of applied test pressure in
hydrostatic pressure testing of the pipeline.
• Water is added into the pipe section to compensate for
the loss of water in the pipe due to leakage.
• The leakage should be within allowable range which is
given by:
𝑁𝐷 𝑃
Q=
3.3
Where Q = allowable leakage in cm3/hr;
N = number of pipe joints in test section;
D = Diameter of pipe in mm;
P = applied test pressure in kg/cm2.
g) Backfilling of trench:
• The trench is back filled with the excavated material.
• Excavated material should be soft and free from rock,
plastics, leaves.etc.
• Backfilling should be flushed to ground surface.

Source:safeworkmethodofsafety.com
h) Disinfection of pipeline
• Pipeline should be disinfected before put into service.
• Pathogenic organisms present inside the pipes are killed.
• Pipelines can be disinfected by:
 Traditional methods using chlorine.
 Recently established method using ozone.
• In chlorine method, pipeline is filled with chlorinated water so
that residue chlorine of 50 mg/l is maintained for 12 hours.
• Pipe is the emptied, flushed with fresh water and then put into
service.
• In ozone method, pipeline is injected with ozonated water.
• Ozone method completes disinfection within 2-4 hrs
compared to 24 hours in chlorine method
• Also provides potential for cleaner and easier pipeline
disinfection.
9.VALVE AND FITTINGS

Source:https://giphy.com/gifs/valve-tHF75k1uWomCk
Background
• The various devices fixed along the water supply
system are called appurtenances.

• For the efficient operation and maintenance of

pipeline system different appurtenances are used
in pipeline.

• A proper Water Supply System cannot be

imagined without the planned use of
appurtenances.

• Appurtenances link up all the different phases

involved in the Water Supply System starting from
main source to finally terminating at distribution
line (consumers).
Some major components used in pipeline

Valves

Fittings

Manholes

Fire Hydrants

Water Meters…..
Valve

A valve is a device that regulates, directs or

controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized
solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially
obstructing various passageways. wikipidea

 What are valves used for?

•To regulate the flow of water.
•To prevent the flow in opposite direction.
•To release excessive pressure.
•To remove or admit the air.
• To drain or washout the pipeline.
Some commonly used valves

Sluice Valve
Globe Valve
Butterfly Valve
Reflux Valve
Pressure Relief Valve
Air Valve
Drain Valve…etc
Engineering- Sluice valve or gate valve

WWW.GIPHY.COM/VALVES/SLUICE-
Supply

VALVE
Source:Water
Textbook

• A sluice valve consists of disc or circular gate, usually

wedge shaped, closely fitted in recess against the
opening.

• The arrangement is such that when the nut or wheel

7 the
above is rotated the thread spindle rises along with
disc to allow the passage of water.
 Features of sluice valve
• Sluice Valve are the most common type of valves
used to regulate flow through pipelines.

• These valves may be placed in order to separate

any section of pipeline.

• These valves may be placed at intervals of about

150-300 meters and also at point of intersection.

• Sluice Valves finds its extensive use in distribution

lines for shutting off supplies when desired.

• These valve may require big force to open due to

differential pressure and can erode rapidly in
partially open position.
 Drain valves

• The drain valves are also known as socur valves or

washout valves or blow off valves.

• These valves comprise of a low resistance sluice

valve of required size for emptying ,flushing or for
inspection, repair of the pipeline.

• These are located at dead ends and depression or

low points where sediments sediment deposition is
possible.
Giphy.com-check_valve

• A conventional check valve consists of gunmetal

disc tightly hinged to edge which fits tightly
against its seat consequently stopping the water
flow.

• When water flows with enough pressure the gate

rotates about hinge allowing water flow in one
direction.
Feature and scope of reflux valve
• These type of valves are specially designed, to allow
unidirectional flow of water and are placed in supply
system with low to medium head.

• These valve are invariably placed in the pumping main so

that if the pump fails, water is prevented from going inside
pump.

• Reflux Valve find their application in water meters, inlet of

subsidiary tank, solar tanks…etc.

• Rainwater harvesting systems that are plumbed into the

main water supply may be required to have one or more
check valves fitted to prevent contamination of the
primary supply by rainwater.
Pressure relief valve

• It consists of spring loaded disc which can be calibrated

for any pressure by manipulating the spring with the help
of handle provided atop.

• When the set pressure is exceeded, the relief valve

becomes the "path of least resistance" as the valve is
forced open and a portion of the fluid is diverted through
the auxiliary route, thus decreasing the pressure.
 Pressure relief valve
Features of Pressure Relief Valves

• Pressure Relief Valve are also called automatic cutoff

valves or safety valves.

• These valves are provided to keep the water pressure

below the assigned threshold to prevent any danger of
bursting.

• These valves find their use near the source and in

transmission lines where pressure tend to increase.

• Excess pressure may buildup inside pipe due to:

i. Entering of air
ii. Water hammer
iii. Shrinkage of Pipe Fig:Bursting of Pipe
iv. Clogging in Pipes…etc
 Air valve

An air valve consists of cast iron chamber, float level and

poppet valve connected to main pipeline as shown.

 In normal condition, the chamber has sufficient water to

close the poppet valve.
 When the air start to accumulate in the chamber increased
pressure causes water level to drop eventually opening the
poppet valve to let the air out.
Features of Air Valves
• Air valves are also called air relief valves as they
decrease air pressure in pipes.

• Air valves are thus placed at the summit to provide

exit for accumulated air as air inside tends to
accumulate at high point.

• These valves are also required to discharge air when

main tank is being filled.

• Air valves also facilitate entering of air when main

tank is being emptied to prevent sudden drop of
pressure in tank.

• Air valves are sometimes used to admit air in section

where partial vacuum is created to prevent
backsiphonage.
 Fittings
Fittings are used in the pipeline during its
laying for various purposes such as:-

• Connecting different pipes

• Changing the direction of flow

• Connecting different appurtenances

• Closing and sealing of pipe etc.

 Types of pipe fittings:
Bend

source:indiamart.com Tee

Cross

Wye

Reducer

Plug

Socket

Stop cock

Water tap
 Bend
• It is used to change the direction
of a pipeline , 360 degrees theoretically.
• ¼ bend, 1/8 bend, 1/16 bend and
1/32 bend are available.
• ¼ bend corresponds to 90 degrees bend,
1/8 bend corresponds to 45 degrees
bend and so on.
• Bends are also known as elbows. Source:alibaba.com

But what is the difference between bends and elbows?

 Bends vs elbows
• Elbow is an engineering term.
• It can be of a standard size only.
• All elbows are bends but not vice-versa.
• Centre to end distance=diameter: short radius
elbows
• Centre to end distance=1.5*diameter:long radius
elbows.
• Short radius elbows are used in pressurized system
where as long radius elbows are used in gravity fed
system.
Tee
• It is in ‘T’ shape and has two outlets
and one inlet.
• It is used to connect pipes of
different diameters or to change
the direction of pipe runs.
• Equal tee is used when the size of
the branch is same and unequal
tee is used when they are of different source:indiamart.com
sizes.
Cross
• It is also called 4-way
fitting.
• It connects four pipes
together.
• It may have one inlet and
three outlets or vice versa.
• It often has solvent welded
socket ends or female
threaded ends. Source: indiamart.com
Wye
• It is used to create branch
lines.
• It has shape of ‘Y’.
• It may have one inlet and two
outlets and vice versa.
• It often has solvent welded
socket ends or female
threaded ends.
source:homedepot.com
 Reducer
• It joins two pipes of different sizes
to reduce the diameter of the run.

• When it is reversed in direction,

it increases the pipe diameter and is
known as increaser.

Source: indiamart.com
• It allows to adapt to the existing pipe-
line of different diameter.
Plug
• A plug closes off or seals the end
of a pipe.

• Generally, it is male threaded and

Fits into the fitting it is mated to.

• A cap is similar to the plug but is

has female thread. source:indiamart.com
Socket
• It is a female end of a fitting that fits
over pipe.

• It is used to connect two pipes of

same or different diameters.

• The plane socket is used to connect

two pipes of same diameters where
as the reducing socket is used to Source: indiamart.com
connect different diameters.
Union
• It is used to connect two pipes of the
same diameters which allows quick
and easy disconnection of the pipes
for maintenance at any future time.

• It is made in three parts : a female

thread, a nut and a male end.

Source: indiamart.com
Water tap
• It is also known as bib cocks or
faucets.
• It is fixed in wash basins, kitchen,
bathrooms, etc from where the
consumers obtain water.
• The clockwise turning of handle
stops the flow and the
anticlockwise turning opens the
source:indiamart.com
flow.
Nipple
• It has external male threads at each
end for connecting two other fittings.

• It is available in different lengths.

• It may have hexagonal section at the centre

for the wrench to grasp, aka hex nipple.
Source: indiamart.com

• A barrel nipple is made from short piece of

pipe and a closed nipple is fully threaded.
Stop cock
• It is practically sluice valve or gate
valve of small size since they stop or
open the flow of water when
necessary.
• It is used in pipelines that connect
wash basins, water tanks flushing
tanks, etc.
• It is also provided just outside the
property to isolate the building from
Source: indiamart.com
water supply
during maintenance.
• It is made up of brass or gun metal.
9.3 Break Pressure Tank

Source: saconstructionnews.co.za

Break pressure tank is a small tank or chamber

specifically built to break the hydrostatic pressure in the
pipeline. It is also known as break pressure chamber.
9.3.1 Operation
The diaphragm
pilot valve
opens and
closes the
control valve as
system demand
fluctuates.

The flow into the tank is automatically regulated to

match the system demand thereby ensuring that the
velocity in the upstream pipeline is limited to the
design flow rate. Opening and closing occurs
gradually to prevent unwanted surges and water
hammer.
1.Where to use break pressure tank?
Ans
Break pressure tank are generally provided in the area
Where gravity flow water supply system is
present. Usually in the hilly areas.

2.Why usually in hilly areas?

Ans
In the hilly areas there may be high level difference
between the locations of the storage tank and public
stand post.
 Air valve

BPT

http://thoughtsfrommalawi.blogspot.com

Although these systems are powered by gravity, water

Still sometimes has to flow uphill. When it does, there
Is a risk of air getting caught in the pipe.
 If air does get caught in the pipe, it essentially gets
trapped(since it can’t flow through the water),builds up
pressure, and blocks flow. It can sometimes also burst the
pipe.
To prevent this, air valves are used.

Mr. Alizeo and Mr. Utumbe opening

up a break pressure tank. The
concrete slab in front of the tank has
a valve under it, in case you want to
shut off water flowing into the tank.
http://thoughtsfrommalawi.blogspot.com

The top pipe on the right is an overflow pipe, and the bottom
one is an outlet pipe (for draining the tank before cleaning).
Valve chamber Overflow pipe

Outlet pipe
The inside of the tank.
The pipe on the right is
the inflow, the pipe on
the left is the outflow.

Notice that they’re not

directly aligned,
ensuring that the water
will have to slosh
around in the tank http://thoughtsfrommalawi.blogspot.com
before flowing out.

The pipe at the top of the picture is the outlet pipe for
cleaning
 Cleaning (washout)

Outlet
Inlet
Distribution

http://thoughtsfrommalawi.blogspot.com
• As shown in fig. of gravity fed water system, The
reduced level of the storage tank is 1500m and that of
public standpost is 1200m.

• The level difference = 300m.

• Due to this level difference when water flows down the

hill the hydrostatic pressure of 300m or 30 kg/cms is
created.

In such case pipe that can withstand 30

kg/cms
is required
.
Maximum Pressure Ratings Of:
HDPE (High density ethylene) kg/cms GI (Galvanized iron pipe)
kg/cms
10 18

Hence ,The steel pipe that can withstand higher

pressure will be requred.
 9.3.2 Strategic placing of break
pressure tank
The strategic placing of break pressure tanks in the
pipeline as shown in figure.

• The introduction of
break pressure tanks at
locations with R.L. 1400
and 1300 breaks the
pressure built up in the
pipeline establishing
new static water level at
R.L. 1400 and 1300m.
• The maximum pressure build up is limited to
100m or 10 kg/cm2 which can withstand by HDPE
pipe of 10 kg/cm2 pressure rating thus by
avoiding the necessasity of using GI and steel
pipes.

No need to search
high pressure rating
pipes . One can use
BPT and avoid high cost
or expenses.
9.3.3 Construction of break pressure
tank

• Excavation for a tank should be 30cms into firm soil,

and the floor of the excavation should be levelled and
compacted.
• A layer of gravel and masonry footing should be
built.

• Minimum height above the ground should be 20

cms.

• The inner dimension of the break pressure tank

should be large enough to accommodate the
fitting such as float valve, gate valve etc.

• A float valve is always provided in it. It

automatically closes the inlet flow when the flow
downstream stops due to closure of taps.
 9.4 Public standpost

• Public stand post is also called as

Public tap stand(PTS) .

• A public stand post distributes

water to public in a community
through one or many taps.

• As it is used by many no care is

given so it’s design and
construction should be sturdier
than domestic.
 Sourcewww.arcgis.com
:
Fig. People waiting for collecting water at public
standpost
A stand post is always a new and important
gathering place where people come to collect
water and wash cloths even bath also.
 Things to be considered for constructing public
standpost

 Not only the stand post itself but the immediate area
should also be carefully selected.

 It’s design is therefore, confirm closely to the social and

cultural aspirations of the community.

 It should be properly designed and built .

 It should be clean, attractive and inviting place

otherwise it may become dirty, muddy and unhygienic.
The location of stand post is governed by pouplation
density and by settlement pattern. The maximum
distance from any house to a standpost should not
exceed 100m.
To avoid complications the following guidelines should be
followed.

It should be accessible to all

the users all the time.

It should not be located

within house or courtyard.
Wvi.org
It should be located where wastewater can be drained
away easily.
The villagers should choose an alternate location if the
location is likely to create friction.
 Source:Qz.com

Table. Maximum Walking Distance For

Standpost.
Type of walking Walking Distance(m)
distance Desirable In exceptional
cases
Horizontal 150 250
Vertical 50 80
9.4.2 Flow
The standard standpost flow is 0.15 LPS. It could
serve a population of 100 persons at an average per
capita demand of 45 liters per day with peak factor 3.
 For such flow it should be provided to densely
populated area.

The maximum flow in PSP is limited to 0.25 LPS to

avoid crowd and queing.

If demand exceeds 0.25 LPS double faucet PSP

need to built.
9.4.3 Residual Head
High residual head will cause accelerated erosion.This
results in interior erosion of the pipe leading to low
discharge due to friction loss.

Fig.Pipe eroded at bent due to high Fig.Erosion of interior of pipe due to

flow rate. high flow rate.
Source:researchgate.n Source:youtube.com
et
To Prevent Residual Loss :-
a) Absolute minimum: 5 meters

b) Most desirable: 15 meters

c) Absolute maximum: 56 meters

The static pressure when the tap is

closed must not exceed the pressure
rating of the pipe.
A wooden standpost may be constructed of brick,
wood, stone, or using mortar or dry stone masonry.
Construction of standpost
A post supporting a 15mm
mild steel riser pipe from A stand on which bucket is
the pipeline upto a placed.
bibcock.

Components of stand posts

Gutter and drainage to a

A apron to collect spillage. soak way to prevent the
breeding of mosquitoes
and to keep area clean.
 Masonry Types of Wooden
standpost stand standpost
post
a) Masonry standpost
• A masonry stand post is made
of cement mortar.

• It should have supporting

column of 50cm*50cm around
the G.I. pipe.

• The faucet should not extrude more than 30cm.

• Footing should be embedded 30cm below the ground.

• A non erodable drainage channel should carry the waste

water to a suitable drainage point.
b) Wooden standpost
• A wooden standpost donot
have long lifetime as
masonry standpostsl,due
to moist environment that
promotes rotting.

• It consists a 15cm square

minimally by 100cm longer
than the height of the
faucet. source:Researchgate

• G.I. pipe is installed into the wooden plank by nailing

with iron staples nails.
How to make a more permanent
wooden standpost ?
ANS.
 The post of same size is provided.

 A channel cut in the back of it so that G.I. pipe can be

installed inside of it.

 A wooden cap over the top of post is provided to

prevent seeping of water into the wood.

 Sorrounding area of post should be slated to minimize

seepage into the ground.
 The post should be set into the bed of gravel,and
backfilled with more gravel.

 Wood preservative should be used to paint the

post.
 9.5 Operation and maintenance of water
supply system
• Operation refers to the routine activities and procedures
such as distribution, treatment, etc. that are implemented
by authorized personnel to ensure that the water supply
system is working efficiently.
• Maintenance refers to the planned or reactive technical
activities which are carried out to ensure that all the
assets are functioning effectively.
• Maintenance is the regular process of surveillance and
major repair may be needed in the future if maintenance
is neglected.
• Repair refers to the process of putting the system into
good condition after damage or wear.
• Maintenance should also include possible improvements
to the system to bring it up to new standards.
 9.5 Objectives of operation and
maintenance
• To ensure the smooth and uninterrupted running of water
supply system.

• To provide sustainable, equitable, consistent, adequate,

economic and safe water.

• For increased longevity of overall supply system.

 9.5.1 Requirements for operation and
maintenance:
• Quality design and construction.
• Availability of spares and tools for maintenance.
• Sound financial management system.
• Preparation of plan for O&M.
• Community involvement.
• Monitoring and evaluating the O&M process with follow up
programmes.
• Trained workers.
9.5.2 Methods of maintenance:

a) Preventive maintenance
• involves frequent inspection at regular intervals as
precaution to be taken to prevent any breakdown of the
system.
• maintains and keeps the infrastructure in good
conditions.
• Also includes minor repairs and replacement as dictated
by routine examinations.
• Examples of preventive maintenance include network
inspection, flushing of the well, cleaning and greasing of
mechanical parts and replacement of items with a limited
lifespan.
a) Preventive maintenance(contd…)
Advantages of preventive maintenance:
• Keeps assets up and running for longer than other types
of maintenance
• Long-term repair costs are usually significantly lower
• Safety is improved due to reduced likelihood of
catastrophic failure.
• Prevents costly emergency repair.

Disadvantages of preventive maintenance:

• More complex than other types of maintenance.
• Requires more investment early on.
b) Corrective maintenance:

• Task performed to identify, isolate and rectify a fault in the

system.
• Repairs are done only after a problem has occurred.
• System should be restored to operational conditions within
the tolerance limits.
• Convenient schedule for corrective maintenance allowed
by preventive maintenance.
• Examples include reallocation of pipe route or replacement
of faulty pump.
b) Corrective maintenance(contd…)
Advantages of corrective maintenance:
• Lower short time costs.
• Requires less staff.
• Prevents from breakdown of system.

Disadvantages of corrective maintenance:

• Increased long term costs.
• Lower reliability with increased downtime of equipments.
• Continuity of the system is broken.
c) Reactive maintenance:
•Emergency maintenance carried out as a result of
reaction to a crisis or public complaints.

•Also known as breakdown maintenance.

•Occurs due to failures, malfunctioning or breakdown of

equipment, pipe or other structures.

•It impacts assets performance and is highly expensive.

•Likely to be needed during peak operating periods.

c) Reactive maintenance(contd…)

Advantages of reactive maintenance:

• Minimal planning is required.
• Easier to understand.
• Fewer staffs are required.

Disadvantages of reactive maintenance:

• It can be extremely costly.
• Poses a risk to different equipments in the system.
• Breaks the continuity of system.
 9.5.3 Institutional arrangement for
maintenance:
• Institutional structure and distribution of responsibilities
should be defined in order to manage the maintenance
program effectively.
• NWSC(Nepal Water Supply Corporation) is the responsible
organization for the implementation of water supply systems
including O&M in 22 sub-metropolitan and municipalities of
Nepal.
• In Kathmandu valley, KUKL( Kathmandu Upatyaka
Khanepani Limited) is responsible for the implementation
and O&M of water supply systems.
• Small towns and rural areas of Nepal are under the
jurisdiction of Department of Water Supply and
Sewerage(DWSS).
• DWSS along with its regional, divisional and sub-divisional
offices in all 75 districts of Nepal carries the implementation
of water supply systems through various committees and
technicians.
a) User’s Committee
• Responsible for all O&M activities.
• Consists of nine democratically elected members of which
at least two shall be women.
Its responsibilities are:
• Operations, maintenance, management and repair of the
water supply scheme.
• Protect the scheme from social and environment damage.
• Establish and collect fees for VMW’s pay and public
standposts.
• Held responsible for interruption of the water supply due
to lack of proper management, O&M, and repair except for
repairs that are necessary due to natural disasters and
other causes beyond the UC’s control.
• Organizing volunteer labour, collecting local materials, and
other resources for repair work.
• Maintaining a scheme file containing all correspondence,
account, store records and O&M work,etc.
b) Village Maintenance Worker(VMW):
• Carries out the maintenance activities for the water supply
scheme.
• Generally, VMWs are local users of the system who has
received proper training and support and DWSO.
His/her responsibilities are:
• Performing routine O&M inspection of water supply and
sanitation facilities,
• Operating water supply scheme,
• Making repairs to the scheme,
• Report to UC on the condition of the scheme,
• Request village volunteer labour from UC.
• Safe keeping and proper use of all the scheme’s
maintenance tools, spare parts and materials,
• Instructing and giving technical advice to the villagers on
the building and use of household latrines.
c) Maintenance and Sanitation Technician(MST):
• Link between DWSO and the individual User Committees,
• Should be experienced and competent, a good motivator and
communicator,
• Undertakes maintenance status survey of the scheme of the
district.
• Has skills in all the construction methods used on water supply
schemes.
Her/His responsibilities are:
• Conduct village UC meeting on O&M at least twice a year.
• Provide on site training to UC and VMW.
• Form UC if none,
• Help appoint a VMW and form SUGs, if none,
• Promote sanitation activities in the community,
• Inspect school and health post latrine,
• Perform approved repair work.
d) Standpost User Group(SUG):
• Specific users consisting of caretaker and two women
health volunteers,
• Sanitation and maintenance unit for their standpost to
ensure that no part of the water system is over looked
by the UC or VMW,
Its responsibilities are:
• Maintenance and cleaning of standpost and
surrounding areas,
• Suppoting the VMW with his tasks,
• Collect money, local materials and volunteer labor for
standpost repairs,
• Collect remunerations from standpost beneficiaries for
paying the system’s VMW,
• Follow-up on the UC and VMW to ensure that they are
doing their jobs,
• Promote sanitation and hygiene among the users.