Body systems: protection and

movement; skin, bone, joints and

muscle
 Objectives
• Describe the two layers of the skin (dermis and epidermis)

• List the functions of the skin (protection, temperature control, detection of changes in the
environment, and production of vitamin D.

• Know the macroscopic structure of a typical long bone.

• Know the functions of bone (muscle attachment, support, protection mineral storage, and the
production of blood)

• Know the structure and function of joints, ligaments and tendons.

• Describe the common disorders of the skeletal system such as osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, and
sprains.
• Compare and contrast the different types of muscle. Location, innervation, cell characteristics,

• Describe the mechanisms of muscular contraction.

 Integumentary system
The integumentary system includes the
following:

Skin
Hair
Nails
Sudoriferous Glands (sweat)
Sebaceous Glands (oil)
 Integumentary system: functions
The functions of the skin:

Protects underlying tissues from trauma,

pathogen invasion, and water loss
Helps to regulate body temperature
Synthesizes Vitamin D
Helps us to be aware of our surroundings
 Regions of the skin
Epidermis Dermis

 Stratified squamous  Contains collagen fibers

epithelium that help prevent tearing
 Basal layer produces  Contains elastic fibers
new cells
that maintain tension
 Cells harden and die as
they push to the surface  Contains blood vessels
 Keratin - hardens cells, that nourish the skin
waterproof  Contains sensory
 Melanocytes - produce receptors for touch,
pigment pain, pressure,
temperature
 Subcutaneous layer
The subcutaneous layer is found below the skin
but is not part of the skin, and consists of

 Adipose tissue
Insulation
Energy storage
Human skin anatomy
 Accessory organs of the skin
 Nails
 Protect digits
 Nail root- grows new nail
 Cuticle- protects nail root
 Lunula- white half-moon at base- thick layer of cells
 Hair Follicles
 Extend from dermis through epidermis
 Arrector pili muscles-erect hair shaft- “goose bumps”
 Epidermal cells in hair root form hair
 Cells become keratinized and die as they are pushed away from root
 Oil Glands
 Associated with hair follicles
 Lubricates hair and skin
 Sweat Glands
 Some open into hair follicles, others onto skin
 Thermoregulation
THE SKELETAL MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Structure of long bone
A bone is surrounded by a tough fibrous connective tissue called the
periosteum, which is continuous with ligaments and tendons.

The ends of long bone are covered with articular cartilage.

The expanded ends of long bone are called epiphyses which are composed
mainly of spongy bone, with red bone marrow in its spaces (produces
blood cells).

The portion of bone between the epiphyses is called the diaphysis. It

contains a medullary cavity with yellow bone marrow (fat) surrounded by
compact bone.

Between the epiphyses and the diaphysis, the growth plate or epiphyseal line
can be found. This is where bone growth occurs.
Anatomy of bone
 Bone physiology
The bones of the skeleton have the following functions

• Structural support
• Bones of lower limbs, pelvic girdle
• Protection of soft body parts
• Skull, rib cage
• Production of blood cells
• Fetus: All bones
• Adults: Skull (flat bones), ribs, sternum, clavicles. vertebrae, and pelvis
• Storage of minerals and fat
• Calcium phosphate in bone matrix
• Fat in yellow marrow
• Flexible body movement
• Along with muscles
 Structure of compact bone
Compact bone is highly organized
Composed of osteons which are the functional units
of bone
Osteocytes (bone cells) lie in lacunae
 Arranged in concentric circles around a central canal
 Central canals contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves
Lacunae are interconnected by canaliculi
Cytoplasmic extensions of osteocytes extend through
canaliculi
 Allows nutrients to flow from central canal to the cells
 Structure of spongy bone
Spongy bone has an unorganized appearance
Osteocytes are found in trabeculae
Numerous thin plates surrounded by unequal spaces
Plates follow lines of stress so spongy bone is light but
strong
Spaces filled with red bone marrow
Red bone marrow produces blood cells
In infants, red marrow is present in cavities of all bones
In adults, red bone marrow is present in the spongy
bone of the skull, sternum, ribs, vertebrae, and ends of
long bones
 Classification of bones by shape
Classification of bones by shape
• Long bones - bones of limbs
• Short- cube shaped bones of digits
• Flat - skull
• Round- like the patella
• Irregular- like vertebrae and facial bones

All bones have depressions and protuberances

(processes) for attachment of muscles
The skeleton
 Divisions of the skeleton
The skeleton is divided into the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton
 Axial Skeleton
– Skull, vertebral column, rib cage, hyoid bone
 Appendicular Skeleton
– Bones of limbs and the limb girdles
• Pectoral girdle consists of the scapula and the clavicle
• The upper limbs consist of the humerus in the arm, the radius and
ulna in the forearm, the carpal bones of the wrist, the metacarpal
bones of the palm, and the phalanges
• The pelvic girdle consists of the coxal bones
• The lower limbs consist of the femur in the leg, the tibia and fibula
in the lower leg, the patela in the knee, the tarsal bones of the
ankle, the metatarsal bones and the phalanges
 Articulations (joints): types
 Fibrous- immovable
• Sutures between bones of skull
 Cartilaginous- slightly movable
• Connected by hyaline cartilage
– Ribs / sternum
• Connected by fibrocartilage
– Intervertebral discs
 Synovial- freely movable
• Bones are separated by a cavity
• Ligaments holds two bones in place
• Tendons help to stabilize the joint
• Synovial membrane- lines joint capsule
 Types of synovial joints
Hinge joints- permit movement in one direction
only
• Ex: knee

Pivot joint- permit only rotational movement

• Ex: joint between radius and ulna

Ball and socket joints- permit movement in all

planes
• Ex: hip joint
Examples of movements at synovial
joints
Type of movement Example of movement

Flexion Forearm toward the arm

Extension Forearm away from the arm

Abduction Arms sideways, away from

body
Adduction Arms back to the body

Rotation Head to answer “no”

Knee joint
The knee joint is a synovial
joint.

Notice the synovial cavity

between the bones, that is
encased by ligaments and
lined by a synovial
membrane.

The patella serves to guide the

quadriceps tendon over the
joint during flexion and
extension.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE FIBER
CONTRACTION
 Muscle tissue: types
There are three types of muscle tissue

 Skeletal muscle
 Voluntary
 Attached to bones by tendons
 Cylindrical, with many nuclei in the periphery
 Striated

 Smooth muscle
 Nonstriated
 Involuntary
 Spindle shaped fibers with a single central nucleus
 Found in the walls of organs

 Cardiac muscle
 Striated
 Involuntary
 Branched cells with single central nucleus, cells joined together by intercalated disks
 Anatomy of the muscle fiber
Muscle fibers are muscle cells that have the
usual organelles with special names assigned
to them as we have just seen.
Inside of each muscle fiber, there are hundreds
of myofibrils that extend the length of the
muscle fiber.
Each myofibril is divided into sarcomeres that
are the contractile units of the myofibril.
Microscopic anatomy of a muscle fiber
Name Function

Sarcolemma Plasma membrane of muscle fiber that forms T

tubules
Sarcoplasm Cytoplasm of muscle fiber

T tubule Extension of the sarcolemma that extends into the

muscle fiber. Conveys impulses that cause Ca to be
released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Sarcoplasmic The smooth endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle
reticulum fiber stores Ca.
Myofibril A bundle of myofilaments that contracts

myofilament Actin filaments and myosin filaments whose

structure and functions account for muscle
striations and contractions.
 Structure of the sarcomere
Each myofibril is divided into sarcomeres.

A sarcomere extends between 2 Z-lines.

Each sarcomere contains two types of myofilaments:

 Thick filaments – composed of hundreds of molecules of the

protein myosin. Myosin has the shape of a gulf club with the
heads facing the sides of the sarcomere

 Thin filaments – composed of 2 intertwining strands of the

protein actin. The binding sites of actin are covered by the
protein tropomyosin which is attached to the protein troponin
 Mechanism of muscle contraction:
sliding filaments
Upon stimulation, sarcoplasmic depolarizes and an action
potential spreads along the membrane
– AP travels down T tubules into muscle fiber
– Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
– Sarcomeres within the myofibrils shorten- causes contraction of the
muscle fiber
• Actin filaments slide past the myosin filaments and approach one another
• I bands shorten and the H zone disappears
• ATP supplies the energy
• Myosin filaments break down ATP and have cross bridges that pull the
actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere
Structure and function of skeletal
muscle fiber
 Skeletal muscle contraction
The sarcolemma generates impulses that spread over itself
and down T-tubules to the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium which binds to

troponin moving the tropomyosin away from the myosin
binding site.
Actin binds to the head of the myosin, and the filaments
within the sarcomeres to slide past one another.

Sarcomere contraction causes myofibril contraction, resulting

in the contraction of a muscle fiber and eventually the
entire muscle.
Neuromuscular junction
The molecular mechanism of
contraction
 Disorders of the
Musculoskeletal System

Fractured Bones

– Greenstick fractures
– Stress fractures
– Compound Fractures
 Disorders of the
Musculoskeletal System

Osteoporosis
Bones lose mass
and mineral
content

Leads to and
increase risk of
fractures
 Disorders of the
Musculoskeletal System
Arthritis
Osteoarthritis
• Degenerative joint
disease (cartilage)