CHAPTER 3

EVAPORATION,
TRANSPIRATION &
INFILTRATION

1
 Learning Objectives
Define evaporation & transpiration.
Describe methods for estimating the
evaporated & transpired quantity of water.
Indicate the importance of
evapotranspiration in hydrologic modeling.
Explain the infiltration process and rate.

2
 CONTENT
 EVAPORATION (E)
☻ AFFECTS OF METEOROLOGY
FACTORS
☻ ESTIMATING EVAPORATION

 TRANSPIRATION (T)
☻ ESTIMATING TRANSPIRATION

3
.... Cont ‘
CONTENT
 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)
☻ ESTIMATING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

 INFILTRATION (I)
☻ INFILTRATION CAPACITY
☻ FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION
☻ INFILTRATION MEASUREMENT
☻ INFILTRATION METHODS
☻ INFILTRATION INDEX
4
EVAPORATION (E)

What
is
Evaporation

5
 EVAPORATION (E)

 Process  water is transformed from the liquid

phase to vapor phase.
 Occurs on water surface, water flow, highway,
roof, land surface, land subsurface and plants.
 Important factor  study of water resources 
mainly affects the flow rate of river, irrigation,
water requirement and reservoir water.

6
 EVAPORATION (E)

METEOROLOGY FACTORS

4 factors affecting :-

1. SUN RADIATION
 Process will continue if there is energy.
 Cloud  barrier for evaporation

2. WIND
 If wind blows the component of vapor 
changed dry air  evaporation occurs.

7
 EVAPORATION (E)

METEOROLOGY FACTORS

3. HUMIDITY RELATIVE
 If humidity relative  potential of air to
absorb water   evaporation 

4. TEMPERATURE
 If air & soil temperature   evaporation
is faster.

8
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

How to
ESTIMATE
EVAPORATION

9
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

ESTIMATING EVAPORATION

 FOUR (4) methods used to estimate

EVAPORATION :-
 Water Budget

 Energy Budget

 Mass Transfer Techniques

 Pans 10
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

1st METHOD
WATER BUDGET METHOD E P

I
 Common method used.
O

 Formula to calculate :-
G

E  P  I  G  O  ΔS
OR

ET  P  R
11
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

1st METHOD
WHERE :-

ET = Evapotranspiration
E = Evaporation
R = Surface runoff
G = Groundwater
P = Rainfall depth
I = Surface runoff that ENTER catchment area
O = Surface runoff OUT from catchment area
ΔS = Change in storage, above and below land
surface
12
EXAMPLE 3.1

The drainage area of the Sembrong River

at Johore Malaysia, is 11,839 km2. If the
mean annual runoff is determined to be
144.4 m3/s and the average annual rainfall
is 1.08 m, estimate the ET losses for the
area. How does this compare with the lake
evapotranspiration of 1 m/year measured at
Muar River, Negeri Sembilan .
Given :-
A = 11,839 km2 Find :-
R = 144.4 m3/s per year ET ???
P = 1.08 m

13
 SOLUTION

Step !!
1. Calculate ET using the following formula :-

ET  P  R
Given in (meter)

2. But first, need to calculate R IN METER

Conversion of R :-
m3 1 1km 1km 86400 sec
R  144.4     365 days 
s 11839 km2 1000 m 1000 m 1 day

R  0.38 m per year

14
SOLUTION

Therefore :-

ET  1.08  0.38

ET  0.7 m per year < 1 m/year

(drainage) (Muar River)

15
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

2nd METHOD

ENERGY BUDGET METHOD

 Enter all resources & thermal energy losses 

evaporation as wanted variable.
 Apply continuity equation.
 Accuracy depend on the reliability &
preciseness of data.

16
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

2nd METHOD

ENERGY BUDJET METHOD

 Formula to calculate evaporation :-

Qs  Qr  Qa  Qar  Qbs  Qo  Qv
E
  L(1  B)  c p (Te  Tb ) 
whereby :-
p (To  Ta )
B  0.61 .
1000 (eo  ea )
17
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

2nd METHOD
ENERGY BUDGET METHOD
which :-
E = evaporation (cm3/cm2 – day)
Qo = increase in stored energy by the water
Qs = solar radiation incident at the water surface
Qr = reflected solar radiation
Qa = incoming long wave radiation from atmosphere
Qv = net energy advected into the water body
Qar = reflected long wave radiation
Qbs = long wave radiation emitted by the water
B = Bowen’s ratio
Cp = the specific heat of water (cal/ g – oC)
To = the water surface temperature (oC)
Ta = the air temperature (oC)
p = the atmospheric pressure (mb)
ρ = the mass density of evaporated water (g/cm3)
eo = the saturation vapor pressure at the water surface temperature (mb)
ea = the vapor pressure of the air (mb)
18
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

3rd METHOD

MASS TRANSFER TECHNIQUES

 Based on the concept of the turbulent transfer

of water vapor to atmosphere.
 Three (3) techniques applied :-

 Dalton’s equation
 Meyer’s equation
 Dunne’s equation
19
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)
3rd METHOD
MASS TRANSFER TECHNIQUES

i. DALTON’S EQUATION

 Formula used :-

where :-
E  κ e o  e a 
E = Direct evaporation (in/day)
 = a coefficient dependent on the wind velocity,
Refer
Table 3.1
atmospheric pressure,and other factors (GIVEN)
eo, ea = the saturation vapor pressure at the water surface
temperature and the vapor pressure of air,
respectively ( in.Hg) 20
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)
3rd METHOD
MASS TRANSFER TECHNIQUES

Table 3.1 a: Values of vapor pressure ea & eo

(Traditional U.S Unit)

21
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)
3rd METHOD
MASS TRANSFER TECHNIQUES
Table 3.1 b: Values of vapor pressure ea & eo
(SI Unit)

22
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)
3rd METHOD
MASS TRANSFER TECHNIQUES

ii. MEYER’S EQUATION

 Formula used :-
 W
E  Ce o  e a 1  
where :-  10 
Mile per hour
E = Daily evaporation (in/day)
W = Wind velocity in mph measured about 25ft
above the water surface
C = Pan empirical coefficient (GIVEN)
23
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)
3rd METHOD
MASS TRANSFER TECHNIQUES

iii. DUNNE’S EQUATION In percentage

 Formula used :-
 100  R h 
E   0.013  0.00016 U2  e a  
 100 
where :-
E = Evaporation rate (cm/day)
U2 = Wind velocity measured at 2 m above the surface (km/day)
eo, ea = Saturation vapor pressure at the water surface temperature
and the vapor pressure of air, (milibars)
Rh = Relative humidity (%)
24
EXAMPLE 3.2

Using the Meyer and Dunne equations, find

the daily evaporation rate for a lake given that
the mean value for air temperature was 87o F,
the mean value for water temperature was
63oF, the average wind speed was 10 mph,
and the relative humidity was 20 %. Refer to
Table 3.1 for vapor pressure values. Assume
pan empirical coefficient is 0.36
Given :-
Ta = 87 F  ea Find :-
To = 63 F  eo E ??? Using :-
W = 10 mph i) Mayer
Rh = 20 % ii) Dunne
25
SOLUTION

Step !!
1. Using Meyer’s equations:-
 W
E  Ceo  e a  1 
 10 

 Need to find eo & ea :-

At To = 63 F  have to interpolate eo

0.74
eo 0.74  0.52 e o  0.52
0.52 
70  60 63  60

e o  0.59 inHg
60 63 70 (°F)
26
 SOLUTION

At Ta = 87 F  have to interpolate ea

1.42
ea 1.42  1.03 e a  1.03
1.03 
90  80 87  80

e a  1.30 inHg
80 87 90 (°F)

But Rh = 20 % therefore ;
20
e a  1.30   0.26 in.Hg
100
27
SOLUTION

Substitute all values into Mayer’s eq. :-

 10 
E  0.36 0.59  1.30 1  
 10 

E  0.23 in/day

28
SOLUTION

2. Using Dunne’s equations:-

 100  R h 
E   0.013  0.00016 U2  e a  
 100 

 Need to convert ea in milibars & U2 in km/day:-

25.4 mm 1 mb
e a  0.26 in.Hg    8.75 mb
1in 0.75 mm.Hg

mile 1.6093 km 24 hrs km

U2  10    386
hr 1 mile 1 day day
29
SOLUTION

Substitute all values into Dunne’s eq. :-

 100  20 
E  0.013  0.00016  386  8.75  
 100 

E  0.527 cm/day OR 0.21 in/day

30
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

4th METHOD

USE OF EVAPORATION PANS

 The least expensive.

 Provide good estimate of annual evaporation.
 Position of the pan :-
 On the land surface
 In the land surface
 Floating on the water 31
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

4th METHOD

Evaporation pan Class A

32
 .... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

4th METHOD
If pan is located as in situation 3 (floating on the water) :-

Evaporation in lake is calculated using :-

Where for both evaporation situation above :-

espan = saturation vapor pressure at certain temperature in the pan
eslake = saturation vapor pressure at certain temperature in the lake
e = air vapor pressure on the water
μ = wind velocity
c = constant
Epan = pan evaporation
Elake = lake evaporation 33
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

4th METHOD

If daily evaporation – Class A pan is used, the

following formula is referred :-

The difference between eo and ea is calculated

using this formula :-

34
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

4th METHOD

Where :-

35
.... Cont ‘ EVAPORATION (E)

4th METHOD

Annual lake evaporation can be calculated using

Penman formula :- Pan coefficient
(0.70 – 0.75)

Where :-

36
TRANSPIRATION (T)

What
is
Transpiration

37
.... Cont ‘ TRANSPIRATION (T)

 Process  water moves through plants &

evaporates through leaf stomata.

38
.... Cont ‘ TRANSPIRATION (T)

How to
ESTIMATE
TRANSPIRATION

39
.... Cont ‘ TRANSPIRATION (T)

BLANNEY-CRIDDLE METHOD

 Consumptive use of water during GROWING

SEASON by the following formula :-

whereby :-

40
.... Cont ‘ TRANSPIRATION (T)

BLANNEY-CRIDDLE METHOD

U = Consumptive use of water during the growing season (inch).

Ks = Seasonal consumptive use coefficient applicable to a particular crop,
empirically derived (Table 3.2).
B = the summation of monthly consumptive use factor for a given season.
t = the mean monthly temperature (in F).
p = the monthly day time hour given as % of the year (Table 3.3).
k = the consumptive use coefficient

41
.... Cont ‘ TRANSPIRATION (T)

BLANNEY-CRIDDLE METHOD

 Monthly consumptive use is determined by the

following formula :-

where :-
u = monthly consumptive use (inch)
k = consumptive use coefficient
42
.... Cont ‘ TRANSPIRATION (T)
BLANNEY-CRIDDLE METHOD

Table 3.2: Seasonal

consumptive use crop
coefficients (Ks) for
irrigated crops

43
.... Cont ‘ TRANSPIRATION (T)

BLANNEY-CRIDDLE METHOD

Table 3.3: Daytime hours coefficient (p)

44
EXAMPLE 3.3

Determine the monthly consumptive use of

an alfalfa crop grown in southern California
for the month of July if the average monthly
temperature is 72oF, the average value of
daytime hours in percentage of the year is
9.88, and the mean montly consumptive use
coefficient for alfalfa is 0.85

Given :-
Crop = Alfalfa p = 9.88 Find :-
Location = South k = 0.85 u ???
Time = July
T = 72F
45
SOLUTION

Step !!
From equation:-

0.85  72  9.88
u
100

u  6.05 inch of water

46
 EXAMPLE 3.4

Determine the seasonal consumptive use of a

tomato crop grown in New Jersey if the mean
monthly temperature for May, June, July and
August are 61.6, 70.3, 75.1 and 73.4o F,
respectively and the percent daylight hours for
the given months are 10.02, 10.8,10.22 and
9.54 as percent of the year, respectively

Given :-
T1 = 61.6F, T2 = 70.3F, T3 = 75.1F, T4 = 73.4F
p1 = 10.02, p2 = 10.08, p3 = 10.22, p4 = 9.54

Find :-
U ???
47
SOLUTION

Step !!
From equation:-

Find B value first :-

Growing season is
4 months

 61.6  10.2   70.3  10.08   75.1 10.22   73.4  9.54  

B       
 100   100   100   100 

B  27.9 48
SOLUTION

Ks value is obtained from Table 3.2 :-

Because New Jersey is humid area  take

lower values of Ks

 Ks = 0.65
Therefore;
U  0.65  27.9 
U  18.1 in of water
(4 months growing season)

49
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

What
is
Evapotranspiration

50
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

 Process sum of evaporation from the

earth's land surface & transpiration
from plant to atmosphere.
 Used for hydrologic modeling & 2 concepts
applied :-

 Evaporation
potential (ETp)
 Evaporation
Actual (ETa)
51
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

How to
ESTIMATE
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

52
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

ESTIMATING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

 TWO (2) methods used to estimate

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION :-

 Thornhwaite method

 Penman method

53
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

1st METHOD
THORNHWAITE METHOD

 Method used to calculate ETp.

 Formula to calculate :-
SS 
x
ET p  GI  k  E p   a 
 
 AWC 

whereby :-

x = AWC/G  REFER Table 3.4

54
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

1st METHOD
THORNHWAITE METHOD

ETp = evapotranspiration potential (in/day)

GI = growth index of crop in percentage of maturity
k = ratio of GI to pan evaporation, usually 1.0 – 1.2 for short
grasses, 1.2 – 1.6 for crops up to shoulder height, and
1.6 – 2.0 for forest
Ep = pan evaporation ( in/day)
S = total porosity  REFER Table 3.4
Sa = available porosity (unfilled by water)
AWC = porosity drainable only by evapotranspiration
 REFER Table 3.4
G = moisture freely drained by gravity

55
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

1st METHOD
THORNHWAITE METHOD

Table 3.4: Hydrologic

capacities of soil texture
classes

56
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

2ndMETHOD
PENMAN METHOD

 Combine mass transport & energy budget theories

 Widely used method  more reliable approaches
 Good result if no observation by pan evaporation
& water balance study.

57
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

2ndMETHOD
PENMAN METHOD

 Formula used to calculate ETp :-

ΔH  0.27 E ΔH  γEo
ET p  o
OR Et  Δ  γ
Δ  0.27
whereby :-

58
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

2ndMETHOD
PENMAN METHOD


H  R A (1  r )  0.18  0.55

n
D



 B0.56  0.092e a 
0.5  0.10  0.9 n 

 D


OR
H  Rl  RB
Which

59
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

2ndMETHOD
PENMAN METHOD
es = saturation vapor pressure at mean air temperature (mmHg)
 (Figure 3.7 or Table 3.1)
ea = actual vapor pressure in air (mm/day)
 h = ea/es   ea = h  es
h = relative humidity (in decimal)
RI = net of short wave radiation (mm/day)
RB = long wave radiation accepted by earth (mm/day)
R @ RA = mean monthly extraterrestrial radiation (mmH2O evaporated/day)
 (Table 3.6)
Δ = curve slope of vapor pressure at t (mmHg)  (Figure 3.8)
n/D = cloud ratio
n = actual duration of bright sunshine
D = maximum possible duration of bright sunshine
r = reflection coefficient of surface (in decimal)
Eo = evaporation (mm/day)
Et @ ETp = potential evapotranspiration (mm/day)
u2 = mean wind speed at 2m above the ground (mi/day)
H = daily heat budget at surface (mm/day)
B = variable given (Table 3.5)
 = physchometer constant (  = 0.27) 60
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

2ndMETHOD
PENMAN METHOD

Figure 3.7: Relation between temperature, T and

saturated vapor pressure, es

61
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

2ndMETHOD
PENMAN METHOD

Table 3.6: Getting values of R or RA

62
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

2ndMETHOD
PENMAN METHOD

 Figure 3.8: Getting values of 

63
.... Cont ‘ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

2ndMETHOD
PENMAN METHOD

Table 3.5: Getting variables of B

64
 EXAMPLE 3.5

Using the Penman method, estimate ETp, given

the following data : temperature at water
surface = 22oC, temperature of air = 33oC,
relative humidity = 45%, wind velocity = 1.5
mph (36 mi/day). The month is June at latitude
33o north, r is given as 0.07 and n/D is to be
found 0.70
Given :-
Tw = 22C, Ta = 33C r = 0.07
h = 0.45, n/D = 0.7
u = 36 mi/day
Month = June
Latitude = 33 Find :-
ETp ???
65
SOLUTION

Step !!
From equation:-

ET p  ΔH  0.27 Eo
Δ  0.27

1. Find  value first from figure 3.8:-

At Ta = 33C   = 1.2 mm Hg

2. Calculate Eo value from the following formula :-

66
SOLUTION

where:-
es  From Table 3.1, (at Ta = 33C)
 have to interpolate es

42.18
es 42.18  31.83 e s  31.83
31.83 
35  30 33  30

e s  38.04 inHg
30 33 35 (°C)

ea = h  es
ea  h = ea/es ea = 0.45  38.04 = 17.12 mmHg
67
 SOLUTION

therefore:-
Eo  0.3538.04  17.12 1  0.0098 (36)

Eo  9.91 mm/day

3. Calculate H value from the following formula :-


H  R A (1  r )  0.18  0.55

n
D


  B 0.56  0.092e a

0.
5  n
 0.10  0.9 
 D
RA  From Table 3.6,
(at North, Latitude = 33, June)

68
SOLUTION

where:-
RA  have to interpolate
16.7
RA 16.7  16.5 R A  16.5

16.5 40  30 33  30

R A  16.56
30 33 40

B  From Table 3.5,

B  at T = 33C (air)
(C need to convert to K)
69
SOLUTION

K = C + 273
K = 33C + 273 = 306K
Again B  have to interpolate

B 18.60 18.60  17.46 B  17.46


17.46 310  305 310  305

B  17.69
305 306 310 (°K)

70
SOLUTION

therefore:-
H  (16.56) (1  0.07 )  0.18  (0.55  0.7 ) 

 (17.69) 0.56  (0.092  17.12)0.5  0.10  (0.9  0.7)
H  6.38 mm / day

Thus:-
(1.2  6.38)  (0.27  9.91)
ETp 
1.2  0.27

ETp  7.02 mm/day

71
 EXAMPLE 3.6

Estimate the monthly potential

evapotranspiration for June. The mean
monthly temperatures are shown in the Table
below. The average relative humidity is 50%.
The wind speed is 130 mi/day. Assume that n/D
= 70%, γ = 0.27, and r = 25% at 50 latitude
north.
Given :-
Ta = 24.2C or 75.5F r = 0.25 Find :-
h = 0.5, n/D = 0.7 Et ???
u = 130 mi/day  = 0.27
Month = June
Latitude = 50 north
72
EXAMPLE 3.6

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June

Tm(0F) -1.5 5.2 30.2 40.2 58.1 75.5

Tm(0C) -18.6 -14.9 -1.0 4.6 14.5 24.2

Month July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Tm(0F) 70.3 67.5 51.0 40.2 31.2 15.2

Tm(0C) 21.3 19.7 10.6 4.6 -0.4 -9.3

73
SOLUTION

Step !!
This is 
From equation:-

Et  ΔH  0.27 Eo
Δ  0.27

1. Find  value first from figure 3.8:-

At Ta = 24.2C (June)   = 0.75 mm Hg

2. Calculate Eo value from the following formula :-

74
SOLUTION

where:-
es  From Table 3.1, (at Ta = 24.2C)
 have to interpolate es

23.76
es 23.76  17.53 es  17.53
17.53 
25  20 24.2  20

es  22.76 inHg
20 24.2 25 (°C)

ea = h  es
ea  h = ea/es ea = 0.5  22.76 = 11.38 mmHg
75
 SOLUTION

therefore:-
Eo  0.3522.76  11.38 1  0.0098 (130)

Eo  9.06 mm/day

3. Calculate H value from the following formula :-

H  Rl  RB
where:- ?  n
R l  R A  (1  r )  0.18  0.55 
 D
?    n
R B  B 0.56  0.092 ea  0.10  0.90 
 D
76
 SOLUTION

Calculate Rl first :-
 Need to find RA :-
RA  at North, Latitude 50, June
RA  From Table 3.6,
RA = 16.7
Therefore :-

R l  16.7  (1  0.25) 0.18  0.55  0.7 

R l  7.08 mm/day

77
SOLUTION

Next, compute RB :-
 Need to find B :-
B  at T = 75.5F  have do interpolation

B 16.25 16.25  15.65 B  15.65


15.65 80  75 75.5  75

B  15.71
75 75.5 80 (°F)

78
 SOLUTION
Therefore :-

R B  15.71 0.56  0.092 11.38  0.10  (0.90  0.7)
R B  2.86 mm/day

Thus :-
H = 7.08 – 2.86
H = 4.22 mm/day
Hence :-
(0.75  4.22)  (0.27  9.06)
Et 
0.75  0.27

Et  5.5 mm/day
79
INFILTRATION (I)

What
is
Infiltration

80
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

 Process  precipitation moves

downwards through earth surface.
 It replenishes soil moisture, recharge aquifer
& support stream flows during dry periods.
 Terminology :-

 Infiltration rate – The max. rate at which

ground can absorb water.
 Field capacity – The volume of water that
ground can hold

81
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

INFILTRATION CAPACITY, fc

 Definition  max. rate in absorb water

at a certain type of soil and in a given
time.
 Unit in cm/h or mm/h.
 Two condition exists :-
Note :-
1. f = fc when i > fc
i = Rainfall intensity
2. f=i when i < fc fc = Constant infiltration rate
( t  )
82
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

INFILTRATION CAPACITY, fc

Horton model

Figure 3.10 : Infiltration capacity curve

83
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION

 Three (3) main factors affecting fc :-

1. Characteristics of soil
 Texture  loose soil has larger fc
Underneath drainage  good
drainage has larger fc
 Type of soil  dry soil absorb >
water   has larger fc
Land use  forest soil has higher fc

84
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION

2. Soil surface
 If covered by grass or other
vegetation  high infiltration
3. Fluid characteristics
Turbidity  if  will block pores in soil 
reduce fc
Temperature  if   increase fc
Contamination  if   reduce fc

85
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

INFILTRATION MEASUREMENT

 Using two (2) equipments :-

 Flooding type infiltrometer

 Rainfall simulator

86
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

FLOODING TYPE INFILTROMETER

Figure 3.11 : Infiltrometer set

 Consists of metal cylinder (30 cm , L = 60 cm) &

open both ends
 Driven 50 cm
 5 cm depth water is poured 87
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

FLOODING TYPE INFILTROMETER

 Water is added from burette  maintain level at

the tip of pointer.
 Until uniform rate of infiltration is obtained (2 – 3
hours).
 Surface protected by perforated disk  prevent
turbidity.
 Disadvantage :-
 Infiltered water spread at the outlet of the tube
88
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

FLOODING TYPE INFILTROMETER

OVERCOME ????

Figure 3.12 : Ring Infiltrometer

 Consists of two concentric rings

 Inserted to the ground & water is maintained
 Outer ring as water jacket  prevent water
spreading out
89
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

FLOODING TYPE INFILTROMETER

 Disadvantage :-
 Raindrop effect not simulated
 Driving ring disturb the soil
 Result depends on size  border effect

90
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

RAINFALL SIMULATOR

 Give low values  due to rainfall and turbidity

effects
 Small plot of land (2m  4m)
 Series of nozzles on the longer side.
 Produce raindrops at 2m height.
 Controlled conditions  various of intensities &
durations  surface runoff is measured.
 Infiltration rate & time is calculated.
 If i > f  fc is obtained.
91
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

INFILTRATION METHODS

 Two (2) methods :-

 Horton model - focussed

 Green – Ampt Model

92
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

HORTON MODEL

 Represented by the this empirical eq. :

Whereby :-

f = Infiltration rate capacity (depth/time) at a given time (mm/hr or

cm/hr)
k = Decay constant which is representing the rate of decrease in f
capacity
fc = Asymptotic/ constant infiltration rate (t  )
fo = Initial infiltration capacity, t = 0
t = time
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

HORTON MODEL

Figure 3.13 : Infiltration rate graph

.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

HORTON MODEL

 Total infiltration :


F(t )   f (t )dt   fc  fo  fc  e k t
t t
 dt
0 0


F  fct 
fo  fc 
1e 
k t 

t


 k 0
 EXAMPLE 3.7

A catchment soil has Horton infiltration

parameters: fo = 100 mm/h, fc = 20 mm/h and
k = 2 min-1. What rainfall rate would result in
ponding from beginning of the storm? If this
rainfall rate is maintained for 40 minutes,
describe the infiltration as a function of time
during the storm .
Given :- Find :-
fo = 100 mm/h f?
fc = 20 mm/hr
k = 2 min-1

96
SOLUTION

Step !!
From Horton’s equation :-

Substitude fo, fc and k values :

( 0 < t < 40 min )

97
 EXAMPLE 3.8

An initial infiltration was recorded as 5.5 cm/hr

during 10 hours of rainfall. Given that fc
and k is 0.4 cm/hr and 0.32 hr-1 respectively,
determine;
(i) Infiltration at 5 hours.
(ii) Total infiltration within first 8 hours.
(iii) Total infiltration between 5 and 10 hours
from rainfall begin
Given :- Find :-
fo = 5.5 mm/h f at 5 hours ?
fc = 0.4 mm/hr F within 8 hours?
k = 0.32 hr-1 F (5 < t < 10 hours) ?
98
SOLUTION

Step !!
(i) f at t = 5 hours

f  fc  (fo  fc ) e(-kt)

Substitude fo, fc and k and t :

f  0.4  (5.5  0.4) e(-0.325)

f = 1.43 cm/hr

99
SOLUTION

Step !!
(ii) F within 8 hours


F  fct 
fo  fc 
1e 
k t 

t


 k 0

F  (0.4)( 8) 
5.5  0.4

1  e( 0.328) 
 -0
 0.32 

F = 17.91 cm

100
 SOLUTION

Step !!
(iii) F (5 < t < 10 hours)


F  fct 
fo  fc 
1e k t 
 
t


 k 0

F  (0.4)( 8) 
5.5  0.4
1 e 
( 0.328 ) 

10


 0.32 5

F  (0.4)( 8) 
5.5  0.4

1  e( 0.328)   (0.4)(5)  5.50.320.4 1  e ( 0.32 5 )

 0.32   

F = 4.56 cm
101
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

GREEN-AMPT MODEL

 Also called the delta function model.

 Most realistic models of infiltration.
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

INFILTRATION INDEX

What
is
Infiltration Index ()

103
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

INFILTRATION INDEX

 The average infiltration rate.

 Average rainfall at which P volume = R volume.
 Derived from rainfall hyetograph
 Treat as constant infiltration capacity
 If i >   excess rainfall (surface runoff)
 If i <   f = i (i=intensity of rainfall)

104
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

INFILTRATION INDEX

 If i >   excess rainfall (surface runoff)

Figure 3.14 : Infiltration index

105
.... Cont ‘ INFILTRATION (I)

INFILTRATION INDEX

 Formulae for  index :

PR
Φ index 
te

P = Total rainfall or precipitation (cm)

R = Total runoff (cm)
te = Time of rainfall excess

106
 EXAMPLE 3.9

A storm with 10 cm rainfall produced a direct

runoff of 5.8 cm. Table below show the time
distribution of the storm, estimate the Φ index.

Time
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(hour)
Rainfall
Intensity 0.4 0.9 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.0 0.5
(cm/h)
Given :- Find :-
P = 10 cm ?
R = 5.8 cm
107
 SOLUTION

Step !!
(i) Sketch first rainfall hyetograph
Rainfall hyetograph

2.5
2.3
Ranfall Intensity (cm/hr)

2
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.5

1  (1st assumption)
1 0.9
( 0 <  < 0.4 cm/hr )
0.5
0.5 0.4


0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Time (hour)
te = 8 hours
SOLUTION

Step !!
(i) Calculate the  index :

PR
Φ index 
te
10  5.8
Φ index   0.525 cm/hr
8
(ii) Do checking (is  follows the 1st
assumption??)
Answer  NO !!!!!
109
 SOLUTION

Checking ….
Rainfall hyetograph

2.5
2.3
Ranfall Intensity (cm/hr)

2
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.5
 (calculated)
1
1 0.9

0.5
 = 0.525 cm/hr
0.5 0.4


0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Time (hour)  (1st assumption)

te = 8 hours ( 0 <  < 0.4 cm/hr
110
)
 SOLUTION

(iii) Modify the te value :

Rainfall hyetograph

2.5
2.3
Ranfall Intensity (cm/hr)

2
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.5  (2nd assumption)
( 0.5 <  < 0.9 cm/hr )
1
1 0.9

0.5
0.5 0.4


0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Time (hour)

te = 6 hours
111
SOLUTION

(iv) Calculate again the  index :

PR
Φ index 
te
However P become new :

P = 10 – (0.4  1 + 0.5  1) = 9.1 cm

therefore :

9.1  5.8
Φ index   0.55 cm/hr
6

112
SOLUTION

(v) Again!!! Do checking (is  follows the

2nd assumption??)
Rainfall hyetograph

2.5
2.3
Ranfall Intensity (cm/hr)

2
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.5
 (2nd assumption)
( 0.5 <  < 0.9 cm/hr )
1
1 0.9
 = 0.55 cm/hr
0.5
0.5 0.4

0  (calculated)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Time (hour)

te = 6 hours

Answer  YES !!!!! GOT IT

113
SOLUTION

Thus :
 = 0.55 cm/hr

Checking Rainfall Excess with Runoff depth

given in the question :
Rainfall hyetograph

2.5
2.3
Ranfall Intensity (cm/hr)

2
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.5

1
1 0.9
 = 0.55 cm/hr
0.5
0.5 0.4

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Time (hour)
114
SOLUTION

Hence :

P excess = (0.9 – 0.55)(1) + (1.5 – 0.55 )(1)

+ (2.3 – 0.55)(1) + (1.8 – 0.55)(1)
+ (1.6 – 0.55)(1) + (1 – 0.55)(1)

P excess = 5.8 cm = R (5.8 cm) OK !!!! :

115
 EXAMPLE 3.10

The rainfall intensity in the 50 hectar of

catchment area is given table below. If volume
of surface runoff is 30 000 m3, estimate Φ
index for the catchment area and sketch the
circumstances in form of hyetograph.
Time
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(hour)
Rainfall
Intensity 5 10 38 25 13 5 0
(cm/h)
Given :- Find :-
A = 50 ha  need to convert unit (m) ?
R = 30 000 m3
116
SOLUTION

Step !!
(i) Sketch first rainfall hyetograph
Rainfall hyetograph

40 38
Ranfall Intensity (mm/hr)

35

30
25
25

20
 (1st assumption)
15 13 ( 0 <  < 5 mm/hr )
10
10
5 5
5
0 
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Time (hour)

te = 6 hours
 SOLUTION

Step !!
(i) Calculate the  index :
PR
Φ index  P = Intensity  time
te mm
=  hr
hr
where :-
P = (5 + 10 + 38 + 25 + 13 + 5) (1) = 96 mm

Volume (m 3 )
Runoff 
Area (m 2 )
1 1 ha
Runoff  30 000 m 
3
 2
 60 mm
50 ha 10 000 m
118
 SOLUTION

Therefore;
96  60
Φ index   6 mm/hr
6
(ii) Do checking (is  follows the 1st assumption??)
Rainfall hyetograph

40 38 Answer  NO !!!!!
Ranfall Intensity (mm/hr)

35

30
25
 (calculated)
25
 = 6 mm/hr
20
 (1st assumption)
15
10
13
( 0 <  < 0.5 cm/hr )
10
5 5
5
0

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Time (hour)

te = 6 hours 119
 SOLUTION
Rainfall hyetograph
(iii)
40
Modify the te value :
38
Ranfall Intensity (mm/hr)

35

30
25
25

20

15 13

10
10
 (2nd assumption)

5
5 5 ( 5 <  < 10 mm/hr )
0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Time (hour)

te = 4 hours
120
SOLUTION

(iv) Calculate again the  index :

PR
Φ index 
te
However P become new :

P = 96 – (5 + 5)(1) = 86 mm
therefore :

86  60
Φ index   6.5 mm/hr
4

121
SOLUTION

(v) Again!!! Do checking (is  follows the

2nd assumption??)
Rainfall hyetograph

40 38
Ranfall Intensity (mm/hr)

35
 (calculated)
 = 6.5 mm/hr
30
25
25

20  (2nd assumption)
15 13 ( 5 <  < 10 cm/hr )
10
10
5 5 
5
0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Time (hour)

te = 4 hours

Answer  YES !!!!! GOT IT

122