 Statistical quality control: Statistical concept, Frequency diagram, Concept of

variance analysis, Control Chart for Variable (X & R Chart) & Attribute (P & C
Chart), Process capability(Indices: cp, cpk, ppk),
 Statistical Process Control (Numerical). Production Part Approval Method (PPAP).

20 March 2019 4
 Parameters: 2
Inferential
Statistics
POPULATION

Deductive
SAMPLE
Statistics: x, s, s2
Inductive

20 March 2019 5
 Walter Shewhart (Bell Labs 1920s) - suggested that every process exhibits some
degree of variation and therefore is expected.
 identified two types of variation (chance cause) and (assignable cause)
 proposed first control chart to separate these two types of variation.

 SPC was successfully applied during World War II as a means of ensuring

interchangeability of parts for weapons/ equipment.
 Resurgence of SPC in the 1980s in response to Japanese manufacturing success.

20 March 2019 6
Basic approach:
 Awareness that a problem exists.
 Determine the specific problem to be solved.
 Diagnose the causes of the problem.
 Determine and implement remedies.
 Implement controls to hold the gains achieved by solving the problem.

20 March 2019 7
 Concept of variation - No two items are perfectly identical even if extreme care is
taken in manufactuting.
 Variables data(continuous data) - quality characteristics that are measurable
values.
 Measurable and normally continuous; may take on any value.
 Eg. Dimension of a part measured in mm.
 Hardness measured in BHN. Etc.

 Attribute data(discrete) - quality characteristics that are observed to be either

present or absent, conforming or nonconforming.
 Countable and normally discrete; integer
 Ex. No of defective pieces found in a certain sample.
 Blow holes in casting.

20 March 2019 8
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Describes the center position of the data
 Mean Median Mode

 Measures of Dispersion
 Describes the spread of the data
 Range Variance Standard deviation

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 1 𝑁
 Arithmetic mean 𝑋 = σ 𝑋
𝑁 𝑖=0 𝑖
Where,
𝑋𝑖 is one observation,  means “add up what follows” and N is the number of
observations
 So, for example, if the data are : 0,2,5,9,12 the mean is (0+2+5+9+12)/5 = 28/5 = 5.6

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 Median = the observation in the ‘middle’ of sorted data
 Mode = the most frequently occurring value

20 March 2019 11
 The range is calculated by taking the maximum value and subtracting the minimum
value.

Data : 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Range = Maximum Value – Minimum Value = 14 - 2 = 12

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 Variance is the squared deviation of a variable from its mean, and it informally
measures how far a set of (random) values are spread out from their mean.

 Calculate the deviation from the mean for every observation.

 Square each deviation
 Add them up and divide by the number of observations

n
 ( xi   
2

  i 1
2

n
20 March 2019 13
 The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. The variance is in
“square units” so the standard deviation is in the same units as x.

 i
( x    2

 i 1
n

20 March 2019 14
 1 ( x )2 / 2 2
f ( x)  e
2

20 March 2019 15
 A normal curve is symmetrical about 
 The mean, mode, and median are equal
 The curve is uni-modal and bell-shaped
 Data values concentrate around the mean
 Area under the normal curve equals 1

20 March 2019 16
 If x follows a bell-shaped (normal) distribution, then the probability that x is within
 1 standard deviation of the mean is 68%
 2 standard deviations of the mean is 95 %
 3 standard deviations of the mean is 99.7%

20 March 2019 17
 95%
99.74%
-3 -2 -1 =0 1 2 3

20 March 2019 3-18

  

68.3%
20 March 2019 19
2 2
95.5%
20 March 2019 20
3 3

99.73%
20 March 2019 21
 It is a graphical representation of collected information.
 It is a device used for study of repetitive process.
 Using this it is possible to find out natural capability of the process.
 It helps in taking decisions on engineering tolerances and in comparing
alternative designs or alternative production process.
 Developed by W A Shewhart.
 Attribute
 a product characteristic that can be evaluated with a discrete response
 good – bad; yes - no

 Variable measure
 a product characteristic that is continuous and can be measured
 weight - length

20 March 2019 3-23

 Variations due to Assignable causes – These are greater in magnitude and can be
easily traced or detected. Control chart separates out assignable causes of quality
variations.
 These may be because of differences among machines, worker, materials.
 Chance Variations (Random variations) – These are difficult to trace and difficult to
control even under best conditions of productions. These variations are due to
inherent characteristics of the process or machine that function at random.
 Ex. A little play between nut and screw at random may lead to backlash error and
may cause a change in dimension of a machined part.

20 March 2019 24
 Serves as an early warning detection system
 A proven technique for improving productivity
 Effective in defect prevention
 Prevents unnecessary process adjustments
 Provides diagnostic information
 Provides information about process capability
 Helps to find out the causes of quality problems

20 March 2019 25
 A graph that establishes control limits of a process
 Control limits
 Upper and lower bands of a control chart

 Types of charts
 Attributes
 p-chart control chart for fraction defective
 np chart ( for number defective)
 c-chart for defects
 u chart for defects per unit.
 Variables
 mean (x bar – chart)
 range (R-chart)

20 March 2019 3-26

 Choice of variable – variable should be such that it can be measured and
expressed in numbers.
 The dimension of apart which results in real saving in cost should be selected for
control chart purpose.
 Quality characteristic which is responsible for high rework or rejection should be
selected.
 Basis of Sub grouping – Each subgroup should be as homogeneous as possible.
 There should be maximum opportunity for variation from one subgroup to another.
 Samples should not taken at exactly equal intervals of time.

20 March 2019 27
 Subgroup size(Sample size) – Sample size should be as small as possible to
provide maximum homogeneity within the subgroup.
 Larger sample size is desired to make control chart more sensitive to small
variations. Larger the Sample size, smaller is SD , closed 3 control limits. It is
easier to detect variations.
 Frequency of Sampling - To take larger samples at less frequent intervals or
smaller samples at more frequent intervals. Frequency of sampling depends on
how well the process is going on. Generally it is more at initial stages.

20 March 2019 28
 Control Limits – for plotting the control chart generally 3σ limits are selected and
they are termed as control limits.
 Since 99.7% of the samples from given population will fall within these limits, the
remaining 0.3% will fall outside this limit. This means, in a long run 03 samples out
of 1000 samples will fall outside the limits. This is a small risk and hence can be
accepted.

20 March 2019 29
 Type I and Type II Errors
 Type I Errors – with 3σ control limits. 3 out of 1000 samples will fall outside limits,
even if there is no change in population average. So we shall be looking for an
assignable causes of variation when none exists.
 This is called Type I error. We assume a change, when actually it has not taken
place. We spend time and money on needless investigation.
 Type II Error – on the other hand, if we conclude that universe has not changed
when really it has changed. This conclusion is described as Type II error.

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 Process has a tendency to go out of control
 Process is particularly harmful and costly if it goes out of control
 Examples
 at the beginning of a process because it is a waste of time and money to begin production
process with bad supplies
 before a costly or irreversible point, after which product is difficult to rework or correct
 before and after assembly or painting operations that might cover defects
 before the outgoing final product or service is delivered

20 March 2019 3-31

 Making and recording the readings.- Error in reading and
recording should be reduced or eliminated.
 Calculate average X and range R for each subgroup.
 Calculate grand average and average range.
 Calculate control limits for X chart.
 Calculate control limits for R chart.
 Plot the X and R chart.- central line should be drawn as solid
horizontal line at mean or range value. Upper and lower control
limits should be drawn as dotted line at computed value.

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 Range chart ( R Chart )
 uses amount of dispersion in a sample

ത Chart )
 Mean chart ( 𝑋
 uses process average of a sample
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + . . . +𝑋𝑛
𝑋=
𝑛
σ 𝑋ത
𝑋ധ =
𝑁
σ𝑅
𝑅ത =
𝑁

20 March 2019 3-33

 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + . . . +𝑋𝑛
𝑋=
𝑛
σ 𝑋ത
𝑋ധ =
𝑁
σ𝑅
𝑅ത =
𝑁
𝑈𝐶𝐿𝑋ത = 𝑋ധ + 𝐴2 𝑅
𝐿𝐶𝐿𝑋ത = 𝑋ധ − 𝐴2 𝑅
𝑈𝐶𝐿𝑅 = 𝐷4 𝑅ത
𝐿𝐶𝐿𝑅 = 𝐷3 𝑅ത

20 March 2019 3-34

20 March 2019 3-35
1 2 3 4 5
0.07 0.11 0.06 0.08 0.04
23.765 23.77 23.7716 23.7767 23.7717

Rbar = 0.072
Xdbar = 23.7601

20 March 2019 36
1. … no sample points outside limits
2. … most points near process average
3. … about equal number of points above and below centerline
4. … points appear randomly distributed

20 March 2019 3-37

 Process average and process variability must be in control
 It is possible for samples to have very narrow ranges, but their averages might be
beyond control limits
 It is possible for sample averages to be in control, but ranges might be very large
 It is possible for an R-chart to exhibit a distinct downward trend, suggesting some
nonrandom cause is reducing variation

20 March 2019 3-38

 Run
 sequence of sample values that display same characteristic

 Pattern test
 determines if observations within limits of a control chart display a nonrandom pattern

 To identify a pattern:
 8 consecutive points on one side of the center line
 8 consecutive points up or down
 14 points alternating up or down
 2 out of 3 consecutive points in zone A (on one side of center line)
 4 out of 5 consecutive points in zone A or B (on one side of center line)

20 March 2019 3-39

UCL

UCL

LCL

Sample observations
consistently below the LCL
center line
Sample observations
consistently above the
center line 20 March 2019 3-40
UCL

UCL

LCL

Sample observations
consistently increasing LCL

Sample observations
consistently decreasing
20 March 2019 3-41
 UCL =
3 sigma = x + A2R
Zone A
= 2
2 sigma = x + 3 (A2R)
Zone B
= 1
1 sigma = x + 3 (A2R)
Zone C
Process =
x
average
Zone C
=
1 sigma = x - 1 (A2R)
3
Zone B
=
2 sigma = x - 2 (A2R)
3
Zone A
=
LCL 3 sigma = x - A2R
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Sample number 20 March 2019 3-42
43

20 March 2019
 p-chart - portion/percent defective in a sample
 c-chart - number of defects in a sample

20 March 2019 3-44

 𝑝(1
ҧ − 𝑝)ҧ
𝑈𝐶𝐿𝑝 = 𝑝 + 3 ∙
𝑛
𝑝(1
ҧ − 𝑝)ҧ
𝐿𝐶𝐿𝑝 = 𝑝 − 3 ∙
𝑛
Where,
𝑝 = sample proportion defective; an estimate of process average

20 March 2019 3-45

 NUMBER OF PROPORTION
SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE
1 6 .06
2 0 .00
3 4 .04
: : :
: : :
20 18 .18
200

20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans

20 March 2019 3-46
 total defectives
p= = 200 / 20 (100) = 0.10
total sample observations

p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)

UCL = p + z = 0.10 + 3
n 100
UCL = 0.190

p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)

LCL = p - z = 0.10 - 3
n 100
LCL = 0.010
20 March 2019 3-47
 Q. 1Control chart for X-bar and R are maintained on a
certain dimensions of manufactured part, measured in
mm. The subgroup size is 4. The values of X-bar and R
are computed for each subgroup. After 20 subgroups
 X bar = 412.83 R=3.39. Compute the values of 3σ
limits for X-bar and R charts and estimate the value of σ’
on the assumptions that the process is in statistical
control. d2=2.236
(Ans: X double bar=20.641, R-bar=0.1695)

20 March 2019 48
 0.20

0.18 UCL = 0.190

0.16

0.14

Proportion defective 0.12

p = 0.10
0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02 LCL = 0.010

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 20 March 2019 3-49

Sample number
 𝑈𝐶𝐿𝐶 = 𝐶 + 3 ∙ 𝐶
𝐿𝐶𝐿𝐶 = 𝐶 − 3 ∙ 𝐶
Where,
𝐶 - average no of defects; an estimate of process average

20 March 2019 3-50

 C-CHART (CONT.)
Number of defects in 15 samples

NUMBER
OF
SAMPLE DEFECTS
190
1 12 c= 15 = 12.67
2 8
3 16 UCL = c + zc
= 12.67 + 3 12.67
: : = 23.35

: :
15 15 LCL = c - zc
190 = 12.67 - 3 12.67
= 1.99

20 March 2019 3-51

 24
UCL = 23.35
21

18

Number of defects
c = 12.67

15

12

3 LCL = 1.99

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Sample number

20 March 2019 3-52

Lot No. Defective Lot No. Defective
1 10 11 21
 Q.2 The following data was observed for a
2 15 12 25 sample size of 200 pieces for 20 days.
3 10 13 08 Determine whether the data exhibits
4 12 14 14 statistical control. Evaluate preliminary
and revised control Limits.
5 11 15 04
6 09 16 10
7 22 17 11
8 04 18 11
9 12 19 26
10 24 20 13

20 March 2019 53
 P bar =0.068
 UCL = 0.1214
 LCL = 0.01459
 Eliminating sample 12 and 19
 New P bar = 0.06138
 New UCL = 0.11229
 New LCL = 0.01046
 Eliminating sample no 10
 New P bar = 0.05794
 New UCL = 0.1075
 New LCL = 0.00837

20 March 2019 54
 Q. 3 A bush manufactured capstan lathe is checked by GO-NOGO gauges. On
inspection of 12 samples of size varying from 10 to 20 were taken and the following
data is available. Draw p-chart.

Sample Sample No. of Sample Sample No. of

No. size Defectives No. size Defectives
1 20 3 6 15 3
2 10 2 7 15 2
3 12 3 8 10 1
4 16 3 9 20 4
5 12 2 10 20 3
20 March 2019 55
 Q. 4 The gear machine produces a large number of spur gear. Samples of 300 gears
are inspected every day. The results of 20 days are given. Construct p-chart for
future control.
Day No of Defective per sample Day No of Defective per sample
1 5 11 4
2 10 12 7
3 12 13 8
4 8 14 3
5 6 15 3
6 4 16 4
7 6 17 5
8 3 18 8
9 3 19 6
10 5 20 10
20 March 2019 56
 The following data shows number of defectives in inspection of 10 lots of 100
sample size each for a connecting rods. Determine the control limits. And the
revision made, in case the chart is ‘out of limits’.
Lot No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Defectives 4 5 6 7 11 1 5 9 5 4

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Part No Defects Part No Defects Part No Defects
1 8 9 21 17 9
2 16 10 12 18 14
3 14 11 23 19 11
4 19 12 16 20 9
5 11 13 9 21 10
6 15 14 25 22 22
7 8 15 15 23 7
8 11 16 9 24 9

20 March 2019 58
 𝐶ҧ = 13.458
 UCL = 24.463
 LCL = 2.453
 Part no 14 is beyond control limits removing it from calculations
 𝐶ҧ = 12.956
 UCL = 23.754
 LCL = 2.158

20 March 2019 59
20 March 2019 60
 Tolerances
 design specifications reflecting product requirements

 Process capability
 range of natural variability in a process—what we measure with control charts

20 March 2019 3-61

 Process capability refers to the ability of the process to meet the specifications set
by the customer or designer.

20 March 2019 62
 Design
Specifications

(a) Natural variation

exceeds design
specifications; process
is not capable of
meeting specifications
all the time.
Process
Design
Specifications

(b) Design specifications

and natural variation the
same; process is capable
of meeting specifications
most of the time.

Process
20 March 2019 3-63
 Design
Specifications

(c) Design specifications

greater than natural
variation; process is
capable of always
conforming to
specifications.
Process
Design
Specifications

(d) Specifications greater

than natural variation,
but process off center;
capable but some output
will not meet upper
specification.
Process
20 March 2019 3-64
Process Capability Ratio

tolerance range
Cp = process range

upper specification limit - lower specification limit

=
6
20 March 2019 3-65
Net weight specification = 9.0 kg  0.5 kg
Process mean = 8.80 kg
Process standard deviation = 0.12 kg

upper specification limit -

lower specification limit
Cp = 6

= 9.5 - 8.5 = 1.39

6(0.12)

20 March 2019 3-66

 Process Capability Index

=
x - lower specification limit
3
,
Cpk = minimum
=
upper specification limit - x
3

20 March 2019
Net weight specification = 9.0 oz  0.5 oz
Process mean = 8.80 oz
Process standard deviation = 0.12 oz

=
x - lower specification limit
,
Cpk = minimum 3
=
upper specification limit - x
3

8.80 - 8.50 9.50 - 8.80

= minimum , = 0.83
3(0.12) 3(0.12)

20 March 2019 3-68

 Objective is to determine how well the output from a process meets specification
limits
 Compare total process variation and tolerance.

LSL USL

-3 Target +3

20 March 2019 69
 When distributions of averages are compared to distributions of individual values,
the averages are grouped closer to the center value than are the individual values,
as described by the central limit theorem.
 What does this imply for averages in control limits versus individual values in
specification limits?

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 The relationship between the standard deviation for individual values and the
standard deviation for their averages is given by the formula:


x 
n
Where n = subgroup sample size

20 March 2019 71
 If the process can be assumed to be normal, the population standard
deviation can be estimated from either the standard deviation
associated with the sample standard deviation or the range:

 S
 R 
 c
d 2 or
4

20 March 2019 72
 Case I: 6 < USL - LSL
 Most desirable; individual values fall within specification limits

 Case II: 6 = USL - LSL

 Okay, as long as the process remains in control

 Case III: 6 > USL - LSL

 Undesirable; process incapable of meeting specifications

20 March 2019 73
 Production part approval process (PPAP) is used in the automotive supply chain
for establishing confidence in component suppliers and their production
processes. Actual measurements are taken of the parts produced and are used to
complete the various test sheets of PPAP.
The purpose of any Production Part Approval Process (PPAP) is
 to ensure that a supplier can meet the manufacturability and quality requirements of the
parts supplied to the customer
 to provide evidence that the customer engineering design record and specification
requirements are clearly understood and fulfilled by the supplier
 to demonstrate that the established manufacturing process has the potential to produce
the part that consistently meets all requirements during the actual production run at the
quoted production rate

20 March 2019 74