Biomechanics of Bone

Characteristics
• Purpose of the skeletal system: to protect internal organs,
provide rigid kinematic links and muscle attachment sites, and
facilitate muscle action and body movement
• Bone:
• has unique structure and mechanical properties that allow it to carry
out these roles.
• among the body's hardest structures; only dentin and enamel in the
teeth are harder.
• A highly vascular tissue, an excellent capacity for self-repair and can
alter its properties and configuration in response to changes in
mechanical demand.
– changes in bone density after periods of disuse and of greatly
increased use
– changes in bone shape during fracture healing and after certain
operations
– adapts to the mechanical demands placed on it.
 Bone Composition and Structure
• Normal human bone is composed of:
• Mineral or inorganic portion:
• consists primarily of calcium and phosphate,
mainly in the form of small crystals resembling
synthetic hydroxyapatite crystals with the
composition Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2.
• accounts for 60 to 70% of its dry weight
• Water: 5-8%
• Organic matrix: remainder of the tissue
 Bone structure
• Composition: a cellular component + an extracellular matrix.
• The cellular component is made of
• Osteoblasts: bone-forming cells,
• Osteoclasts: bone-destroying cells, and
• Osteocytes: bone-maintaining cells which are inactive
osteoblasts trapped in the extracellular matrix.
• Extracellular matrix:
• responsible for the mechanical strength of the bone tissue
• formed by an organic and a mineral phase.
• organic phase: mainly composed of collagen fibres
• mineral phase: composed of hydroxyapatite crystals.
• a liquid component is also present.
 Two main types of bone

Longitudinal section of human femur. The direction of principal stresses are shown in
the scheme on the right
 Characteristics
• Osseous tissue:
• primary tissue of bone
• relatively hard and lightweight composite material, formed
mostly of calcium phosphate in the chemical arrangement
termed calcium hydroxylapatite
• gives bones their rigidity.
• Bone:
• relatively high compressive strength but poor tensile
strength (resists pushing forces well, but not pulling
forces).
• essentially brittle, but has a significant degree of elasticity,
contributed chiefly by collagen.
• consist of living cells embedded in the mineralized organic
matrix that makes up the osseous tissue.
 Compact bone or (Cortical bone)
• The hard outer layer of bones is composed of
compact bone tissue, so-called due to its
minimal gaps and spaces.
• This tissue gives bones their smooth, white,
and solid appearance, and accounts for 80%
of the total bone mass of an adult skeleton.
• Compact bone may also be referred to as
dense bone.
 Trabecular bone
• It is an open cell porous network also called
cancellous or spongy bone filling the interior of
the organ
• It is composed of a network of rod- and plate-
like elements that make the overall organ
lighter and allowing room for blood vessels and
marrow.
• It accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone
mass, but has nearly ten times the surface area
of compact bone.
Cortical and Trabecular Bone
 Sectional View of the Femur Head

Section through the head of the

femur, showing the outer layer
of compact bone and the soft
center of trabecular bone, filled
with red bone marrow and a
spot of yellow bone marrow
(white bar = 1 centimeter)
 Cancellous bone

Illustration of a section
through long bone, with
spongy bone in its center.
Light micrograph of
cancellous bone, stained
with hematoxylin and
eosin, showing bone
trabeculae (stained pink)
and marrow tissue (stained
blue).
 Lamellar structure of osteons in
cortical bone

Lamellar structure of osteons in cortical bone

Cortical bone is the more dense tissue usually found on the surface of bones. It is
organised in cylindrical shaped elements called osteons composed of concentric
lamellae
 Trabecular bone

Trabecular structures in the L1 vertebra Trabecular structures in the calcaneus

of a 24 year old of a 24 year old

Trabecular bone is quite porous and it is organized in trabecules oriented

according to the direction of the physiological load. The configuration of the
trabecular structures is highly variable and it depends on the anatomical site.
 Cross-section through a region of
compact bone

This image scanned from a textbook, Basic Medical Anatomy, by Alexander Spence
A cross-section through a region of compact bone, you will see rings of Haversian
systems, each with a hole, the canal, in the center
 The effect of aging

Trabecular structures of vertebrae in

a 36 year old woman

Trabecular structures of vertebrae

in a 74 year old woman
 Five types of bones in the human body
• Long bones:
– characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much greater
in length than width.
– comprised mostly of compact bone and lesser amounts of
marrow, which is located within the medullary cavity, and
spongy bone.
– Examples: most bones of the limbs, including those of the
fingers and toes. Exceptions are bones of the wrist, ankle
and kneecap
• Short bones
– roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact
bone surrounding a spongy interior.
– Examples: bones of the wrist and, as are the sesamoid
bones.
Five types of bones in the human body
• Flat bones
– thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones
sandwiching a layer of spongy bone.
– Examples: Most of the bones of the skull, as is the sternum.
• Irregular bones
– do not fit into the above categories.
– consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior.
– their shapes are irregular and complicated.
– Examples: bones of the spine and hips are irregular bones.
• Sesamoid bones:
– bones embedded in tendons.
– Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle
of the tendon is increased and thus the force of the muscle is increased.
– Examples: the patella and the pisiform
Long Bones
 Mechanical Properties of Bone
The different structures of cortical bone and trabecular bone
result in different mechanical properties.
Bone mechanical properties are highly variable according to
species, age, anatomical site, liquid content, etc.

Ultimate strength (MPa) and ultimate strain (%) of cortical bone

from the human femur as a function of age
 Anisotropic Property of Cortical Bone
Cortical bone is an anisotropic material, meaning that its mechanical
properties vary according to the direction of load.
Cortical bone is often considered an orthotropic material. Orthotropic
materials are a class of anisotropic materials characterized by three different
Young's moduli E1, E2, E3 according to the direction of load, three shear moduli
G12, G13, G23 and six Poisson's ratios ν12, ν13, ν23, ν21, ν31, ν32.

Comparison between the

mechanical behaviour of
isotropic and anisotropic
materials
 Elastic constants of cortical bone from
different anatomical sites

Average elastic constants of mandible Average elastic constants of corpus cortical

bone in corpus and ramus bone in inferior, lingual and buccal zones
Average elastic constants of human
mandibular bone by tooth location
Young's modulus of trabecular bone as a function of density of bone.
Bone density ρ is expressed in g/cm3 and Young's modulus E in MPa

The mechanical characterization of trabecular bone is even more difficult. The

mechanical properties of trabecular bone as a whole are due to the mechanical
characteristics of single trabecules and to its highly porous structure
 Bone remodelling
• Bone adapts and remodels in response to the stress
applied.
• Wolff's law: bones develop a structure most suited to
resist the forces acting upon them, adapting both the
internal architecture and the external conformation
to the change in external loading conditions. This
change follows precise mathematical laws.
• When a change in loading pattern occurs stress and
strain fields in the bone change accordingly.
• Bone tissue seems to be able to detect the change in
strain on a local bases and then adapts accordingly.
 Bone Remodelling
• The internal architecture is adapted in terms of
change in density and in disposition of trabecules
and osteons and the external conformation in terms
of shape and dimensions.
• When strain is intensified new bone is formed.
– microscopic scale: bone density is raised
– macroscopic scale: the bone external dimensions are
incremented.
• When strain is lowered bone resorption takes place.
– microscopic scale: bone density is lowered
– macroscopic scale: the bone external dimensions are
reduced
Effect of reduction (from A to B) and of intensification of
strain (from B to A) on bone trabecules
 Remodelling
• When the change in strain is due to a change in direction of
load
• microscopic scale: the structure of trabecules and osteons
is rearranged
• macroscopic scale: a change in bone shape may occur.
• Remodelling is carried out by the cellular component of bone.
• Resorption: osteoclasts reabsorb collagen and mineral phase
which are then taken into the circulatory system .
• Deposition: osteoblasts group on the deposition surface and
build the collagen network of bone. Mineralization takes place
afterwards.
 Bone resorption and deposition

Bone resorption

Bone resorption is the process by which osteoclasts break down bone and
release the minerals, resulting in a transfer of calcium from bone fluid to the blood

Bone deposition
 Equilibrium strain state
• Bone resorption and bone deposition processes are always
active in bone.
• An equilibrium strain state exists in correspondence to which
the two activities are perfectly balanced.
• Strain intensity > the equilibrium strain:
• deposition activity is more intense than resorption activity
and net deposition occurs.
• Strain intensity < the equilibrium strain:
• deposition activity is less intense than resorption activity
and net resorption occurs.
• Dynamical equilibrium between resorption and deposition is
again achieved when the equilibrium strain state is newly
established.
Schematic diagram of the Davy and
Hart model for bone remodelling
 Bone Fracture
Types of bone fractures: Complete,
Incomplete, Compound and Simple.
complete fracture: the bone snaps
into two or more parts
incomplete fracture: the bone
cracks but does not break all the way
through.
compound or open fracture: the
bone breaks through the skin; it may
then recede back into the wound and
not be visible through the skin.
simple or closed fracture: the bone
breaks but no open wound in the skin.
 Simple Fractures
• Greenstick fracture: an incomplete fracture in which the bone
is bent. This type occurs most often in children.
• Transverse fracture: a fracture at a right angle to the bone's
axis.
• Oblique fracture: a fracture in which the break slopes.
• Comminuted fracture: a fracture in which the bone fragments
into several pieces.
• An impacted fracture is one whose ends are driven into each
other. This is commonly seen in arm fractures in children and
is sometimes known as a buckle fracture.
• Other types of fracture are pathologic fracture, caused by a
disease that weakens the bones, and stress fracture, a
hairline crack.
 Bone Repair
While the patient is pain-free (general or
local anesthesia), an incision is made over
the fractured bone. The bone is placed in
proper position and screws, pins, or plates
are attached to or in the bone temporarily
or permanently. Any disrupted blood
vessels are tied off or burned (cauterized).
If examination of the fracture shows that a
quantity of bone has been lost as a result
of the fracture, especially if there is a gap
between the broken bone ends, the
surgeon may decide that a bone graft is
essential to avoid delayed healing.

If bone grafting is not necessary, the fracture can be repaired by the following
methods:
one or more screws inserted across the break to hold it.
a steel plate held by screws drilled into the bone.
a long fluted metal pin with holes in it, is driven down the shaft of the bone from
one end, with screws then passed through the bone and through a hole in the pin.
 Repair of a fractured bone

An illustration of the repair of a

fractured bone (a) is shown in this
diagram. Blood infiltrates the
damaged site, forming a hematoma
(b), a soft callus of fibrocartilage forms
around the hematoma to provide
support (c), osteoblasts produce a
hard callus to strengthen the soft
callus (d), and finally, osteoclasts
remove excess bone and callus (e).
 What is Osteoporosis?
A systematic skeletal disease characterized by low bone mass, increase of
bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture. Osteoporosis can lead to
irreversible deterioration of bone structure

Symptoms Risk Factors

Aches and pains Age : > 45 yrs in Female and > 60 yrs in Male
Loss of height Lifestyle - lack of exercise
Fractures of the Low Vitamin D in take
Hip, Spine, Wrist Low calcium intake
Disability Smoking

Life style & osteoporosis prevention

Be ON YOUR FEET
Exercise at least 3 hours per week
Take a meal rich in Calcium and Vitamin D
Consume adequate calories
Avoid Smoking
AVOID TOBACCO & ALCOHOL
 Rheumatoid arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, systemic
autoimmune disorder that causes the immune system
to attack the joints, where it causes inflammation
(arthritis) and destruction. It can also damage some
organs, such as the lungs and skin. It can be a
disabling and painful condition, which can lead to
substantial loss of functioning and mobility. It is
diagnosed with blood tests (especially a test called
rheumatoid factor) and X-rays. Diagnosis and long-
term management are typically performed by a
rheumatologist, an expert in the diseases of joints and
connective tissues.
Various treatments
physical therapy and occupational therapy
Analgesia (painkillers) and anti-inflammatory drugs,
steroids, are used to suppress the symptoms
disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs)
are often required to reverse the disease process and
prevent long-term damage.
 Osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis (OA, also known as
degenerative arthritis,
degenerative joint disease), is a
clinical syndrome in which low-grade
inflammation results in pain in the
joints, caused by abnormal wearing
of the cartilage that covers and acts
as a cushion inside joints and
destruction or decrease of synovial
fluid that lubricates those joints.
Causes
Aging
Another disease or condition like obesity, repeated trauma or surgery to the joint
structures, abnormal joints at birth (congenital abnormalities), gout, diabetes, and
other hormone disorders.
Crystal deposits in the cartilage can cause cartilage degeneration and
osteoarthritis. Uric acid crystals cause arthritis in gout, while calcium
pyrophosphate crystals cause arthritis in pseudogout.
Hormone disturbances, such as diabetes and growth hormone disorders, are
also associated with early cartilage wear and secondary osteoarthritis.
 Juvenile Arthritis
Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA), formerly known as juvenile rheumatoid
arthritis (JRA) is not a degenerative disease such as osteoarthritis. It can be
classified as an auto-immune disease and is therefore caused by the immune
system attacking the body. The normal function of the immune system is to
ward off outside enemies such as viruses, but in auto-immune diseases, the
body turns on itself. Juvenile arthritis is also known as Juvenile chronic arthritis
(JCA) It affects children sixteen years old or under. JRA can be divide into three
distinct types: Pauciarticular, Polyarticular and Systemic.
 Juvenile Arthritis
• Pauciarticular onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) or
pauciarthritis
– subset of JIA that includes patients with involvement of fewer than
five joints.
– most common subgroup, constituting about 50 percent of cases of JIA
• Polyarticular onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis
– subset of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) that is defined by the
presence of more than four affected joints during the first six months
of illness.
– comprises 20 to 30 percent of patients with JIA.
• Systemic onset JRA
– referred to patients with rash and intermittent fever, in addition to
arthritis of any number of joints.
– It is responsible for about 10 to 15 percent of JRA cases.
 Autoimmune Diseases
• Occurs when the body’s immune system attacks and destroys
healthy body tissue by mistake. There are more than 80 types of
autoimmune disorders.
• The immune system does not distinguish between healthy tissue
and antigens. As a result, the body sets off a reaction that
destroys normal tissues.
• Exact cause of autoimmune disorders is unknown.
– some microorganisms (such as bacteria or viruses) or drugs may trigger
changes that confuse the immune system.
– may happen more often in people who have genes that make them more
prone to autoimmune disorders
• Result: The destruction of body tissue, Abnormal growth of an
organ, Changes in organ function
• Areas affected: Blood vessels, connective tissues, endocrine
glands such as the thyroid or pancreas, joints, muscles, red blood
cells, skin
 Biomechanical Properties of Bone
• Biomechanically, bone tissue may be regarded as a two-
phase (biphasic) composite material; with the mineral as
one phase and the collagen and ground substance as the
other.
• In such materials (a non-biological example is fiberglass)
in which a strong, brittle material is embedded in a
weaker, more flexible one, the combined substances are
stronger for their weight than is either substance alone.
• Functionally, the most important mechanical properties
of bone are its strength and stiffness.
 Typical Load-Deformation Curve

Load-deformation curve for a structure composed of a somewhat pliable

material. If a load is applied within the elastic range of the structure (A to B on
the curve) and is then released, no permanent deformation occurs. If loading is
continued past the yield point (B) and into the structure's plastic range (B to C
on the curve) and the load is then released, permanent deformation results. The
amount of permanent deformation that occurs if the structure is loaded to point
D in the plastic region and then unloaded is represented by the distance
between A and D. If loading continues within the plastic range, an ultimate
failure point (C) is reached.
 Testing of Bone

Stress-strain curve for a cortical bone

sample tested in tension (pulled), Yield
Standardized bone specimenin a
point (B)
testing machine The strain in the
segment of bone between the two
gauge arms is measured with a
strain gauge. The stress is
calculated from the total load
measured.
 Stress-Stress Curves in
Compression

Example of stress-strain curves of cortical and trabecular bone with

different apparent densities, Testing was performed in compression. The
figure depicts the difference in mechanical behavior for the two bone
structures.
 Mechanical Properties of Bone
• Mechanical properties differ in the two bone types.
Cortical bone is stiffer than cancellous bone,
withstanding greater stress but less strain before
failure.
• Cancellous bone in vitro may sustain up to 50% of
strain before yielding, while cortical bone yields and
fractures when the strain exceeds 1.5-2%. Cancellous
bone has a large capacity for energy storage
• The physical difference between the two bone
tissues is quantified in terms of the apparent density
of bone, which is defined as the mass of bone tissue
present in a unit of bone volume (g/cc)
 Schematic stress-strain curves for
three materials
Metal has the steepest slope in the elastic region
and is thus the stiffest material. The elastic
portion of the curve for metal is a straight line,
indicating linearly elastic behavior.

The fact that metal has a long plastic region

indicates that this typical ductile material deforms
extensively before failure.

Glass, a brittle material, exhibits linearly elastic

behavior but fails abruptly with little deformation,
as indicated by the lack of a plastic region on the
stress-strain curve.

Bone possesses both ductile and brittle qualities

demonstrated by a slight curve in the elastic
region, which indicates some yielding during
loading within this region.
Mechanical Properties of Selected
Biomaterials
Ultimate Modulus Elongation(%)
Strength (MPa) (GPa)
Metals - Co-Cr alloy
Cast 600 220 8
Forged 950 220 15
Stainless steel 850 210 10
Titanium 900 110 15
Polymers - Bone cement 20 2.0 2-4
Ceramic - Alumina 300 350 <2
Biological
Cortical bone 100-150 10-15 1-3
Trabecular bone 8-50 2-4
Tendon, ligament 20-35 2.0-4.0 10-25
 Fracture of Ductile and Brittle
Materils
When pieced together after
fracture, the ductile material will
not conform to its original shape
whereas the brittle material will.
Bone exhibits more brittle or more
ductile behavior depending on its
age (younger bone being more
ductile) and the rate at which it is
loaded (bone being more brittle at
higher loading speeds)
Fracture surface of sample, of a ductile
and a brittle material. The broken lines on
the ductile material indicate the original
length of the sample. before it deformed.
The brittle material deformed very little
before fracture.
 Anisotropic behavior of cortical
bone

Anisotropic behavior of cortical bone specimens from a human femoral

shaft tested in tension (pulled) in four directions: longitudinal (L), tilted 30°
with respect to the neutral axis of the bone, tilted 60°, and transverse (T).
 Stress-Strain Behaviour of Trabecular Bone
Example of tensile stress-strain
behavior of trabecular bone tested
in the longitudinal axial direction of
the bone.

Trabecular or cancellous bone is

approximately 25% as dense, 5 to
10%, as stiff, and five times as
ductile as conical bone.
 Schematic representation of
various loading modes
The mechanical behavior or bone - its
behavior under the influence of forces
and moments - is affected by its
mechanical properties, its geometric
characteristics, the loading mode applied,
direction of loading, rate of loading, and
frequency of loading

Forces and moments can be applied to a

structure in various directions, producing
tension, compression, bending, shear,
torsion, and combined loading. Bone in
vivo is subjected to all of these loading
modes.
 Rate dependency of cortical bone
The biomechanical of bone behavior
varies with the rate at which the bone
is loaded. Rate dependency of
cortical bone is demonstrated at five
strain rates. Both stiffness (modulus)
and strength increase considerably
at increased strain rates.

The figure shows cortical bone

behavior in tensile testing at different
physiological strain rates. As can be
seen from the figure, the same
change in strain rate produces a
larger change in ultimate stress
(strength) than in elasticity (Young's
modulus). The data indicates that the
bone is approximately 30% stronger
for brisk walking than for slow
walking.
Influence of Muscle Activity on Stress
Distribution in Bone

Calculated stresses on the Calculated stresses on the

anterolateral cortex of a human anterolateral cortex of a human
tibia during walking tibia during jogging
 Summary
• Bone is a complex two-phase composite material. One phase
is composed of inorganic mineral salts and the other is an
organic matrix of collagen and ground substance. The
inorganic component makes bone hard and rigid, whereas the
organic component gives bone its flexibility and resilience.
• Microscopically, the fundamental structural unit of bone is the
osteon, or haversian system, composed of concentric layers of
a mineralized matrix surrounding a central canal containing
blood vessels and nerve fibers.
• Macroscopically, the skeleton is composed of cortical and
cancellous (trabecular) bone. Cortical bone has high density
while trabecular bone varies in density over a wide range.
 Summary…
• Bone is an anisotropic material, exhibiting different
mechanical properties when loaded in different
directions. Mature bone is strongest and stiffest in
compression.
• Bone is subjected to complex loading patterns during
common physiological activities such as walking and
jogging. Most bone fractures are produced by a
combination of several loading modes.
• Muscle contraction affects stress patterns in bone by
producing compressive stress that partially