Professional Documents
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Signal Signal
Sensing
Conditioning Processing
Element
Element Element
• Input • Output
Measurand • Electrical
Output
Signal Conditioning
DC
Power
Excitation
Supply
Source
Output
Calibration Low (DC)
DC
Transducer Bridge and zeroing Pass
Measurand Amplifier
network Filter
• D.C. systems are generally used for common resistance transducers such
as potentiometers and resistance strain gauges.
• A.C. systems have to be used for variable reactance transducers and for
systems where signals have to be transmitted via long cables to connect
the transducers to the signal conditioning equipment.
Calibration Phase
and AC Sensitive Low Pass
Transducer Bridge Amplifier
zeroing Demonstra Filter
Output
network tor
Measurand (DC)
Reference
Power
Carrier Supply
Oscillator
This bridge is used for measurement of small resistance changes that occur
in passive resistive transducer like strain gauges, thermistors and resistance
thermometers.
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 (𝑅3 /𝑅4 )
𝑅1 + ∆𝑅1 = (𝑅2 +∆𝑅2 )(𝑅3 /𝑅4 ) = 𝑅2 (𝑅3 /𝑅4 ) + ∆𝑅2 (𝑅3 /𝑅4 )
• The null type Wheatstone Bridge is accurate but the problem with this
bridge is that balancing, even if done automatically, is not instantaneous.
Therefore this bridge is unsuitable for dynamic applications where the
changes in resistance are rapid.
• For measurement of rapid changing input signals, the Deflection type Bridge
is used. When the input changes, the resistances R1 producing an unbalance
causing a voltage to appear across the meter.
• The deflection of meter is indicative of the value of resistance and the scale
of the meter may be calibrated resistance directly.
Fig. 3: Deflection Type Wheatstone Bridge provided with zero adjustment and sensitivity
adjustment arrangements
Wheatstone Bridge
• When a deflection type bridge is used, the bridge output on account of the
unbalance may be connected either to a high input impedance device or to a
low input impedance device.
• In most of the applications of deflection type bridge, the bridge output is fed
to an amplifier which has a high input impedance and therefore the output
current 𝑖𝑚 = 0. This would also be the case if the bridge output is connected
to a CRO or a digital voltmeter. The bridge thus used is a Voltage Sensitive
Bridge.
Voltage Sensitive Bridge
Let us assume that the input impedance
of the meter is infinite and therefore 𝑖𝑚 = 0.
Hence 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 and 𝑖3 = 𝑖4 ,
output voltage 𝑒0 = voltage across terminals
B and D
= 𝑖1 𝑅1 - 𝑖3 𝑅3 .
𝑒𝑖 𝑒𝑖
But 𝑖1 = and 𝑖3 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅4
𝑅1 𝑅3
So 𝑒𝑜 = − 𝑒𝑖
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅4
𝑅1 𝑅4 −𝑅2 𝑅3
= 𝑒𝑖
(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )(𝑅3 + 𝑅4 )
∆𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1+ − (
𝑅 1 𝑅1 𝑅 4 )
= 𝑒𝑖
∆𝑅
1 + 𝑅 1 + (𝑅2 /𝑅1 ) 1 + (𝑅3 /𝑅1 )
1
In order to simplify the relationship, let us assume that initially all the
resistances comprising the bridge are equal i e., 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅4 = 𝑅.
∆𝑅1
𝑅 1
Under these conditions: 𝑒𝑜 = 0 and ∆𝑒𝑜 = 𝑒𝑖
4+2 ∆𝑅1 /𝑅
Voltage Sensitive Bridge
It is clear from above equation that the input-output relationship i.e.,
relationship between ∆ R and ∆ 𝑒𝑜 is non-linear. However, if the change in
resistance is very small as compared to initial resistance then we have:
2(∆𝑅1 /𝑅) ≪ 4.
∆𝑅1
𝑅
∆𝑒𝑜 = 𝑒𝑖 so ∆𝑒𝑜 = 𝑒𝑖
4
(𝑅 + ∆R) 𝑅 − 𝑅2 𝑒𝑖
𝑖𝑚 =
(𝑅 + ∆R)(𝑅)(2𝑅) + 𝑅2 (𝑅 + ∆R + 𝑅) + 𝑅𝑚 (𝑅 + ∆R + 𝑅)(2𝑅)
Current Sensitive Bridge
When ∆𝑅 ≪ 𝑅
∆R/𝑅2 𝑒𝑖
We have 𝑖𝑚 = 4 (1+ 𝑅 /𝑅)
𝑚
Voltage output under load conditions is:
∆R/𝑅2 𝑒𝑖 𝑅𝑚 ∆R/𝑅 𝑒 𝑅𝑚 ∆R/𝑅 𝑒𝑖
𝑒𝑜𝑙 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑅𝑚 = (1+ 𝑅 /𝑅) 4 = (𝑅+ 𝑅 )𝑖 =
𝑚 𝑚 4 4(1+𝑅/𝑅𝑚 )
From Eqn. 26'55, it follows that open circuit voltage
∆R
𝑒𝑜 = 𝑒
4𝑅 𝑖
The voltage under loaded conditions is :
𝑒𝑜 𝑅𝑚
𝑒𝑜𝑙 =
(𝑅0 + 𝑅𝑚 )
𝑒𝑜𝑙 1
=
𝑒𝑜 (1 + 𝑅0 /𝑅𝑚 )
Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps)
Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps)
• Ideal Op Amp
• Non-inverting Amplifier
• Unity-Gain Buffer
• Inverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Current-to-Voltage Converter
Ideal Op Amp
VDD
i v VSS v0 VDD
+
- vo
i v
VSS
1) v0 Av v v
The open-loop gain, Av, is very large, approaching infinity.
2) i i 0
The current into the inputs are zero.
Ideal Op Amp with Negative Feedback
v +
vo
v -
Network
vo R
AF 1 2
vi R1
Unity-Gain Buffer
v Closed-loop voltage gain
vi +
v vo vo
- AF
vi
vi v v vo
vo
AF 1
vi
Used as a "line driver" that transforms a high input impedance (resistance) to a low
output impedance. Can provide substantial current gain.
Inverting Amplifier
Current into op amp is zero R2
ii
ii
v v 0 vi v
- vo
R1 v
vi 0 vi +
ii
R1 R1
0 v0 v0
ii vi v0
R2 R2
R1 R2
vo R
AF 2
vi R1
Differential Amplifier
R2 i1
Current into op amp is zero
i1 R1 v
v1 -
v v v2
v vo
+
R1
v1 v
i1 R2
R1
v v0
i1
R2 v1 v v v0
R2 R1 R2
v v2
R1 R2 R2 R2
v1 v2 v2 v0
R1 R2 R1 R2
R1 R2
Differential Amplifier
R2 i1
R2 R2
v1 v2 v2 v0
R1 R2 R R2
1 v1
i1 R1 v
R1 R2 - vo
v
v2 +
2
R1
R2 R2 R R2
v0 v1 v2 2
v2
R1 R1 R2 R1 R1 R2
R2 R2 R2
v0 v1 1 v2
R1 R1 R2 R1
R2
v0 v2 v1
R1
Current-to-Voltage Converter
v
+
vo
v - ii i f
ii
v v 0
RF if
0 v0 i f RF
v0 ii RF
if ii 50 25 106 1.25mA
RF
Assume RF 3.2k
• The output measuring devices require power for their operation. This
power is usually-drawn from the measuring circuit itself. The electro-
mechanical output devices require power which typically ranges from a
few micro watt in the case of sensitive moving coil instruments to a few
watt in the case of recorders.
• Passive filters can be made using just a single resistor in series with a non-
polarized capacitor connected across a sinusoidal input signal. But gain of
such filters can not be more than unity.
• With Multiple stage this loss in signal amplitude is called “attenuation”
can become quiet severe.
• One way of restoring or controlling this loss of signal is by using
amplification through the use of Active Filters.
Active Low Pass Filter
• Filter amplification can also be used to either shape or alter the frequency
response of the filter circuit by producing a more selective output
response, making the output bandwidth of the filter more narrower or
even wider.
• The frequency response of the circuit will be the same as that for the
passive RC filter, except that the amplitude of the output is increased by
the pass band gain, AF of the amplifier. For a non-inverting amplifier
circuit, the magnitude of the voltage gain for the filter is given as a
function of the feedback resistor ( R2 ) divided by its corresponding input
resistor ( R1 ) value and is given as:
Active Low Pass Filter
Where:
AF = the pass band gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)
ƒ = the frequency of the input signal in Hertz, (Hz)
ƒc = the cut-off frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
Active Low Pass Filter
• Thus, the operation of a low pass active filter can be verified from the
frequency gain equation above as:
• The basic operation of an Active High Pass Filter (HPF) is the same as for
its equivalent RC passive high pass filter circuit, except this time the circuit
has an operational amplifier or included within its design providing
amplification and gain control.
• Like the previous active low pass filter circuit, the simplest form of
an active high pass filter is to connect a standard inverting or non-
inverting operational amplifier to the basic RC high pass passive filter
circuit.
Active High Pass Filter
First Order High Pass Filter
Where:
AF = the Pass band Gain of the filter, ( 1 + R2/R1 )
ƒ = the Frequency of the Input Signal in Hertz, (Hz)
ƒc = the Cut-off Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
Active High Pass Filter
• Then, the Active High Pass Filter has a gain AF that increases from 0Hz to
the low frequency cut-off point, ƒC at 20dB/decade as the frequency
increases. At ƒC the gain is 0.707*AF, and after ƒC all frequencies are pass
band frequencies so the filter has a constant gain AF with the highest
frequency being determined by the closed loop bandwidth of the op-amp.
• When dealing with filter circuits the magnitude of the pass band gain of
the circuit is generally expressed in decibels or dB as a function of the
voltage gain, and this is defined as:
Active High Pass Filter
Magnitude of Voltage Gain in (dB)
• For a first-order filter the frequency response curve of the filter increases
by 20dB/decade or 6dB/octave up to the determined cut-off frequency
point which is always at -3dB below the maximum gain value. As with the
previous filter circuits, the lower cut-off or corner frequency ( ƒc ) can be
found by using the same formula:
• The corresponding phase angle or phase shift of the output signal is the
same as that given for the passive RC filter and leads that of the input
signal. It is equal to +45o at the cut-off frequency ƒc value and is given as:
Active Band Pass Filter
The principal characteristic of a Band Pass Filter or any filter for that matter,
is its ability to pass frequencies relatively unattenuated over a specified band
or spread of frequencies called the “Pass Band”.
• For a low pass filter this pass band starts from 0Hz or DC and continues up
to the specified cut-off frequency point at -3dB down from the maximum
pass band gain. Equally, for a high pass filter the pass band starts from this
-3dB cut-off frequency and continues up to infinity or the maximum open
loop gain for an active filter.
• However, the Active Band Pass Filter is slightly different in that it is a
frequency selective filter circuit used in electronic systems to separate a
signal at one particular frequency, or a range of signals that lie within a
certain “band” of frequencies from signals at all other frequencies. This
band or range of frequencies is set between two cut-off or corner
frequency points labelled the “lower frequency” ( ƒL ) and the “higher
frequency” ( ƒH ) while attenuating any signals outside of these two points.
Active Band Pass Filter
• Simple Active Band Pass Filter can be easily made by cascading together a
single Low Pass Filter with a single High Pass Filter.
• The cut-off or corner frequency of the low pass filter (LPF) is higher than
the cut-off frequency of the high pass filter (HPF) and the difference
between the frequencies at the -3dB point will determine the
“bandwidth” of the band pass filter while attenuating any signals outside
of these points. One way of making a very simple Active Band Pass
Filter is to connect the basic passive high and low pass filters we look at
previously to an amplifying op-amp circuit as shown.
Active Band Pass Filter Circuit
Active Band Pass Filter
• This cascading together of the individual low and high pass passive filters
produces a low “Q-factor” type filter circuit which has a wide pass band.
The first stage of the filter will be the high pass stage that uses the
capacitor to block any DC biasing from the source. This design has the
advantage of producing a relatively flat asymmetrical pass band frequency
response with one half representing the low pass response and the other
half representing high pass response as shown.
Active Band Pass Filter
• The higher corner point ( ƒH ) as well as the lower corner frequency cut-off
point ( ƒL ) are calculated the same as before in the standard first-order
low and high pass filter circuits. Obviously, a reasonable separation is
required between the two cut-off points to prevent any interaction
between the low pass and high pass stages. The amplifier also provides
isolation between the two stages and defines the overall voltage gain of
the circuit.
• The normalized frequency response and phase shift for an active band
pass filter will be as follows.
Active Band Pass Filter
Active Band Pass Frequency Response
Active Band Pass Filter
• While the above passive tuned filter circuit will work as a band pass filter,
the pass band (bandwidth) can be quite wide and this may be a problem if
we want to isolate a small band of frequencies. Active band pass filter can
also be made using inverting operational amplifier.
This type of band pass filter is designed to have a much narrower pass band.
The center frequency and bandwidth of the filter is related to the values
of R1, R2, C1 and C2. The output of the filter is again taken from the output
of the op-amp.