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Inspection
Table of Contents
Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection
1. Introduction
2. Basic Principles
3. History of MPI
Physics of MPI
1. Magnetism
2. Magnetic Materials
3. Magnetic Domains
4. Magnetic and Electromagnetic fields
5. Fields from a Coil
6. Magnetic Properties
7. Hystersis loop
8. Permeability
9. Field Orientation
10. Magnetization of Materials
11.Magnetizing Current
Circular Magnetic Fields
Equipment
1. Portable Equipments
2. Stationary Equipments
3. Lighting Requirements
4.Field Strength Indicators
Magnetic Mediums
Defectology
Interpretation of Indications
Demagnetization Methods
Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection
MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings
to detect flaws in components. The only requirement from an inspectability
standpoint is that the component being inspected must be made of a
ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys.
Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level
that will allow the inspection to be affective.
The magnetic particle method will reveal discontinuities that are not open
cracks. For example, cracks filled with carbon or other deposits, which are not
revealed by Penetrant inspection.
Magnetic particle method is generally faster and more economical than
liquid penetrant inspection, and comparatively less cleaning is required.
This method may be used for all ferromagnetic materials and is superior to
liquid penetrant inspection on ferromagnetic materials.
Relatively easy simple method that can be applied at various stages of
manufacturing and processing operations.
This technique is not a substitute for radiography or ultrasonic when locating
subsurface discontinuities, but may present advantages over radiography in
locating tight cracks and surface imperfections.
It may be used where radiography or ultrasonic is neither available nor
practical to apply because of shape of the specimen or its location.
Limitations
When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar
magnets with magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the
magnet is just cracked but not broken completely in two, a north and south
pole will form at each edge of the crack. The magnetic field exits the north
pole and reenters the at the south pole. The magnetic field spreads out
when it encounter the small air gap created by the crack because the air
can not support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet
can. When the field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and,
thus, it is called a flux leakage field.
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be
attracted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet but
also at the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster of particles is much
easier to see than the actual crack and this is the basis for magnetic
particle inspection.
Cannon barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing the barrel then
sliding a magnetic compass along the barrel's length. These early
inspectors were able to locate flaws in the barrels by monitoring the
needle of the compass. This was a form of nondestructive testing but the
term was not really used until some time after World War I.
In the early 1920’s, William Hoke realized that magnetic particles (colored
metal shavings) could be used with magnetism as a means of locating
defects. Hoke discovered that a surface or subsurface flaw in a
magnetized material caused the magnetic field to distort and extend
beyond the part. This discovery was brought to his attention in the
machine shop. He noticed that the metallic grindings from hard steel
parts, which were being held by a magnetic chuck while being ground,
formed patterns on the face of the parts which corresponded to the
cracks in the surface. Applying a fine ferromagnetic powder to the parts
caused a build up of powder over flaws and formed a visible indication.
In the early 1930’s, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) was quickly
replacing the oil-and-whiting method (an early form of the liquid
penetrant inspection) as the method of choice by the railroad to inspect
steam engine boilers, wheels, axles, and the tracks. Today, the MPI
inspection method is used extensively to check for flaws in a large
variety of manufactured materials and components. MPI is used to
check materials such as steel bar stock for seams and other flaws prior
to investing machining time during the manufacturing of a component.
Critical automotive components are inspected for flaws after fabrication
to ensure that defective parts are not placed into service. MPI is used to
inspect some highly loaded components that have been in-service for a
period of time. For example, many components of high performance
race cars are inspected whenever the engine, drive train and other
systems are overhauled. MPI is also used to evaluate the integrity of
structural welds on bridges, storage tanks, and other safety critical
structures.
Basic Physics of MPI
Magnetism
Magnets are very common items in the workplace and household. Uses of
magnets range from holding pictures on the refrigerator to causing torque
in electric motors. Most people are familiar with the general properties of
magnets but are less familiar with the source of magnetism. The traditional
concept of magnetism centers around the magnetic field and what is know
as a dipole. The term "magnetic field" simply describes a volume of
space where there is a change in energy within that volume. This change
in energy can be detected and measured.
The location where a magnetic field can be detected exiting or entering a
material is called a magnetic pole. Magnetic poles have never been
detected in isolation but always occur in pairs and, thus, the name dipole.
Therefore, a dipole is an object that has a magnetic pole on one end and
a second equal but opposite magnetic pole on the other.
A bar magnet can be considered a dipole with a north pole at one end and
south pole at the other. A magnetic field can be measured leaving the
dipole at the north pole and returning the magnet at the south pole. If a
magnet is cut in two, two magnets or dipoles are created out of one. This
sectioning and creation of dipoles can continue to the atomic level.
Therefore, the source of magnetism lies in the basic building block of all
matter...the atom.
The Source of Magnetism
All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons,
neutrons and electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the
atom's nucleus and the electrons are in constant motion around the
nucleus. Electrons carry a negative electrical charge and produce a
magnetic field as they move through space. A magnetic field is produced
whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The strength of this field is
called the magnetic moment.
It can be seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all along the
length of the magnet but that the poles are concentrated at the ends of the
magnet. The area where the exit poles are concentrated is called the
magnet's north pole and the area where the entrance poles are
concentrated is called the magnet's south pole.
Magnets come in a variety of shapes and one of the more common is the
horseshoe (U) magnet. The horseshoe magnet has north and south poles
just like a bar magnet but the magnet is curved so the poles lie in the same
plane. The magnetic lines of force flow from pole to pole just like in the bar
magnet. However, since the poles are located closer together and a more
direct path exists for the lines of flux to travel between the poles, the
magnetic field is concentrated between the poles.
General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing
current but also with each loop that is added to the coil. A long straight coil
of wire is called a solenoid and can be used to generate a nearly uniform
magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. The concentrated magnetic
field inside a coil is very useful in magnetizing ferromagnetic materials for
inspection using the magnetic particle testing method. Please be aware that
the field outside the coil is weak and is not suitable for magnetize
ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic Properties
Quantifying Magnetic Properties
(Magnetic Field Strength, Flux Density, Total Flux and Magnetization)
Until now, only the qualitative features of the magnetic field have been
discussed. However, it is necessary to be able to measure and express
quantitatively the various characteristics of magnetism. Unfortunately, a
number of unit conventions are in use as shown below. SI units will be
used in this material. The advantage of using SI units is that they are
traceable back to an agreed set of four base units - meter, kilogram,
second, and Ampere.
The number of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a given area
at a right angle is known as the magnetic flux density B. The flux density or
magnetic induction has the tesla as its unit. One tesla is equal to 1
Newton/(A/m). From these units it can be seen that the flux density is a
measure of the force applied to a particle by the magnetic field. The Gauss is
CGS unit for flux density and is commonly used by US industry. One gauss
represents one line of flux passing through one square centimeter of air
oriented 90 degrees to flux flow.
m = B/H
It is clear that this equation describes the slope of the curve at any point
on the hysteresis loop. The permeability value given in papers and
reference materials is usually the maximum permeability or the
maximum relative
m(relative) = m(material) / m(air) where: m(air) = 4p x 10^-7 Hm^-1
The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal about the material being
magnetized. The hysteresis curves of two different materials are shown in the
graph.
Relative to the other material, the materials with the wide hysteresis loop has:
Lower Permeability
Higher Retentivity
Higher Coercivity
Higher Reluctance
Higher Residual Magnetism
The material with the narrower loop has:
Higher Permeability
Lower Retentivity
Lower Coercivity
Lower Reluctance
Lower Residual Magnetism.
A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run parallel to
the long axis of the part. Longitudinal magnetization of a component can be
accomplished using the longitudinal field set up by a coil or solenoid. It can
also be accomplished using permanent or electromagnets. A circular
magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run circumferentially around
the perimeter of a part. A circular magnetic field is induced in an article by
either passing current through the component or by passing current through
a conductor surrounded by the component.
When using the direct magnetization method, care must be taken to ensure
that good electrical contact is established and maintained between the test
equipment and the test component. Improper contact can result in arcing
that may damage the component. It is also possible to overheat components
in areas of high resistance such as the contact points and in areas of small
cross-sectional area.
There are several ways that direct magnetization is commonly
accomplished. One way involves clamping the component between two
electrical contacts in a special piece of equipment. Current is passed
through the component and a circular magnetic field is established in and
around the component. When the magnetizing current is stopped, a
residual magnetic field will remain within the component. The strength of
the induced magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current passed
through the component.
The prod electrodes are pressed firmly against the test part. The
magnetizing current is then passed through the prods and into the area of
the part in contact with the prods. This establishes circular magnetic field in
the part around and in between the prod legs, sufficient to carry out localized
magnetic particle inspection.
Extreme care should be exercised to maintain clean prod tips. This is done
to minimize the heat at the point of contact and to prevent arc burns and
local overheating of the material surface. Arc burns cause metallurgical
damage; if the tips are made of solid copper, copper penetration may occur
into the part. Prods should not be used on machined surfaces or on
aerospace component parts.
Proper prod examination requires a second placement of prods with the
prods rotated approximately 90 degrees from the first placement, to assure
that all discontinuities are detected. Depending on the surface coverage
requirements, sufficient overlap should be given between successive
placements. On large specimens, it is usually a good practice to layout a grid
for prod or yoke placement.
As seen in the previous pages, electric current is often used to establish the
magnetic field in components during magnetic particle inspection.
Alternating current and direct current are the two basic types of current
commonly used. Current from single phase 110 volts, to three phase 440
volts are used when generating an electric field in a component. Current
flow is often modified to provide the appropriate field within the part. The
type of current used can have an effect on the inspection results so the
types of currents commonly used will be briefly reviewed.
Direct Current
Alternating Current
Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection applications
call for the detection of subsurface defects. However, the convenient access
to AC, drive its use beyond surface flaw inspections. Luckily, AC can be
converted to current that is very much like DC through the process of
rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC can be converted
to a one-directional current. The three commonly used types of rectified
current are described below.
Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather
than blocking it out. This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between
the pulses. Filtering is usually performed to soften the sharp polarity
switching in the rectified current. While particle mobility is not as good as
half-wave AC due to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the subsurface
magnetic field is improved.
As can be seen in the field distribution images, the field strength at the
inside surface of hollow conductor carrying a circular magnetic field
produced by direct. However, a much better method of magnetizing hollow
components for inspection of the ID and OD surfaces is with the use of a
central conductor. As can be seen in the field distribution image to the right,
when current is passed through a nonmagnetic central conductor (copper
bar) the magnetic field produced on the inside diameter surface of a
magnetic tube is much greater and the field is still strong enough for defect
detection on the OD surface magnetization is very low. Therefore, the direct
method of magnetization is not recommended when inspecting the inside
diameter wall of a hollow component for shallow defects. The field strength
increases rather rapidly as one moves in from the ID so if the defect has
significant depth, it may be detectable.
The magnetic field distribution in and around a nonmagnetic central conductor
carrying DC inside a hollow conductor of a magnetic material .
Longitudinal Magnetic Fields
Distribution and Intensity
When the length of a component is several time larger than its diameter, a
longitudinal magnetic field can be established in the component. The
component is often placed longitudinally in the concentrated magnetic field
that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This magnetization technique is often
referred to as a "coil shot.“. The magnetic field travels through the component
from end to end with some flux loss along its length as shown in the image to
the right. Keep in mind that the magnetic lines of flux occur in three
dimensions and are only shown in 2D in the image.
The magnetic lines of flux are much denser inside the ferromagnetic material
than in air because ferromagnetic materials have much higher permeability
than does air. When the concentrated flux within the material comes to the air
at the end of the component, it must spread out since the air can not support
as many lines of flux per unit volume. To keep from crossing as they spread
out, some of the magnetic lines of flux are forced out the side of the
component. When a component is magnetized along its complete length, the
flux loss is small along its length. Therefore, when a component is uniform in
cross section and magnetic permeability, the flux density will be relatively
uniform throughout the component. Flaws that run normal to the magnetic
lines of flux will disturb the flux lines and often cause a leakage field at the
surface of the component.
When a component with considerable length is magnetized using a solenoid,
it is possible to magnetize only a portion of the component. Only the material
within the solenoid and about the same width on each side of the solenoid
will be strongly magnetized. At some distance from the solenoid, the
magnetic lines of force will abandon their longitudinal direction, leave the part
at a pole on one side of the solenoid and return to the part at a opposite pole
on the other side of the solenoid.
This occurs because the magnetizing force diminishes with increasing
distance from the solenoid, and, therefore, the magnetizing force may only
be strong enough to align the magnetic domains within and very near the
solenoid. The unmagnetized portion of the component will not support as
much magnetic flux as the magnetized portion and some of the flux will be
forced out of the part as illustrated in the image below. Therefore, a long
component must be magnetized and inspected at several locations along its
length for complete inspection coverage.
Solenoid - An electrically energized coil of insulated wire, which produces a
magnetic field within the coil.
Equipments and
Materials
Portable Magnetizing Equipment for
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface of the
component being inspected to make contact for passing electrical current
through the metal. The current passing between the prods creates a
circular magnetic field around the prods that is can be used in magnetic
particle inspection. Prods are typically made from copper and have an
insulated handle to help protect the operator. One of the prods has a trigger
switch so that the current can be quickly and easily turned on and off.
Sometimes the two prods are connected by any insulator as shown in the
image to facilitate one hand operation. This is referred to as a dual prod
and is commonly used for weld inspections.
If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component
surface, electrical arcing can occur and cause damage to the component.
For this reason, the use of prods are now allowed when inspecting
aerospace and other critical components. To help to prevent arcing, the
prod tips should be inspected frequently to ensure that they are not
oxidized, covered with scale or other contaminant, or damaged.
The following applet shows two prods used to create a current through a
conducting part. The resultant magnetic field roughly depicted gives an
estimation of the patterns expected with magnetic particle on an unflawed
surface. The user is encouraged to manipulate the prods to orient the
magnetic field to "cut across" suspected defects.
Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved into place so
the indirect magnetization can be use to produce a longitudinal
magnetic field. Most coils have five turns and can be obtained in a
variety of sizes. The wet magnetic particle solution is collected and
held in a tank. A pump and hose system is used to apply the particle
solution to the components being inspected. Either the visible or
fluorescent particles can be used. Some of the systems offer a
variety of options in electrical current used for magnetizing the
component. The operator has the option to use AC, half wave DC, for
full wave DC. In some units, a demagnetization feature is built in,
which uses the coil and decaying AC.
When the coil is used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field within the
part, the part is placed on the inside surface of the coil. Just as done with
a head shot, the bath is then flowed over the surface of the part. A
magnetizing current is applied to the part for a short duration of 0.2 to 0.5
seconds just after coverage with the bath is interrupted. Leakage fields
from defects attract the particles forming visible indications.
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF
VARIOUS
TECHNIUQES
HEADSHOT
TECHNIQUE
Solid, relatively small parts (castings, forgings, and
machined pieces)
Advantages:
• Fast and easy technique
• Circular magnetic field surrounds the current
path
• Good sensitivity to surface and near surface
discontinuities
• Simple and relatively complex parts can be
processed
• Complete magnetic path is conducive to
maximizing the residual characteristics of
material
Disadvantages
Advantages:
• Entire length can be circularly magnetized
by contacting end to end
Disadvantages
• Effective limited field to outside surface
and cannot be used for inner diameter
examination
• Ends must be conducive to electrical
contacts and must be capable of carrying
maximum current without much heating
• Cannot be used on oil piping, because of
possible arc burns.
PROD EXAMINATION
WELDS
Advantages
• Circular field can be selectively directed to
weld area by prod placement
• In conjunction with HWDC and with dry
powder, provides excellent sensitivity to
surface and near surface discontinuities
• Portability
• Prod spacing must be in accordance with
the magnetizing current
Disadvantages
Magnetic particle inspection can be performed using particles that are highly
visible under white lighting conditions or particles that are highly visible
ultraviolet lighting conditions. When an inspection is being performed using
the visible color contrast particles, no special lighting is required as long as
the area of inspection is well lit. A light intensity of between 300 and 1000 lux
(30 and 100 ftc) is recommended when a visible particles are used, but a
variety of light sources can be used.
When fluorescent particles are used, special ultraviolet light must be used.
Fluorescence is defined as the property of emitting radiation as a result of and
during exposure to radiation. Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle
inspections are coated with a material that produces light in the visible
spectrum when exposed to the near-ultraviolet light. This "particle glow"
provides a high contrast indications on the component anywhere particles
collect. Particles that fluoresce yellow-green are most common because this
color matches the peak sensitivity of the human eye under dark conditions.
However, particles that fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and green colors are
available.
Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light or "black light" is light in the 1,000 to 4,000 Angstroms (100
to 400 nm) wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very
energetic form of light that is invisible to the human eye. Wavelengths above
4,000 Angstroms fall into the visible light spectrum and are seen as the color
violet. UV is separated according to wavelength into three classes: A, B, and
C. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy that is carried in the light
and the more dangerous it is to the human cells.
Spot lights on the other hand provide concentrated energy that can be
directed to the area of inspection. A spot light will generate a six inch
diameter circle of high intensity light when held fifteen inches from the
inspection surface. 100 watt mercury vapor lights are most commonly used,
but higher wattages are available.
In the high pressure mercury vapor spot or flood lamps, UV light is
generated by a quartz tube inside the bulb. This tube contains two
electrodes that establish an arc. The distance between electrodes is such
that a starting electrode must be used. A resister limits the current to the
starting electrode that establishes the initial arc that vaporizes the mercury
in the tube. Once this low level arc is established and the mercury is
vaporized the arc between the main electrodes is established. It takes
approximately five minutes to "warm up" and establish the arc between the
main electrodes.
This is why specifications require a "warm up time" before using the high
pressure mercury vapor lights. Flood and spot black lights produce large
amounts of heat and should be handled with caution to prevent burns. This
condition has been eliminated by newer designs that include cooling fans.
The arc in the bulb can be upset when exposed to an external magnetic
field, such as that generated by a coil. Care should be taken not to bring the
lamp close to strong magnetic fields, but if the arc is upset and
extinguished, it must be allowed to cool before it can be safely restarted.
High Intensity Ultraviolet Lights
The 400 watt metal halide bulbs or "super lights" can be found in some
facilities. This super bright light will provide adequate lighting over an area
of up to ten times of that covered by the 100 watt bulb. Due to their high
intensity, excessive light reflecting from the surface of a component is a
concern. Moving the light a greater distance from the inspection area will
generally reduce this glare. Another type of high intensity light available is
the micro discharge light. This particular light produces up to ten times the
amount of UV light conventional lights produce. Readings of up to 60,000
uW/cm2 at 15 inches can be achieved.
CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR ILLUMINATION
Examination Area Light level Control
Visible Light Intensity
Light intensity in the examination area should be checked at specified interval with
the designated light meter at the surface of the parts being examined. The
maximum period between verifications for visible light intensity is 1 week.
Fluorescent Particles
The examination shall be performed as follows:
1. It shall be performed in a darkened area.
2. The examiner shall be in the darkened area for atleast 5 min prior to performing
examination to enable his eyes to adapt to dark viewing. If the examiner wears
glasses or lens, it should not be photosensitive.
3. The black light shall be allowed to warm up for a minimum of 5 min prior to use or
measurement of intensity of the UV light emitted.
4. The black light intensity shall be measured with a black light meter. A minimum of
1000 µW/sq.cm on the surface of the part being examined. The intensity shall be
measured at least once in every 8 hour shift and whenever the workstation is
changed.
Measuring Magnetic
Fields
When performing a magnetic particle inspection, it is very important to be
able to determine the direction and intensity of the magnetic field. As
discussed previously, the direction of the magnetic field should be between
45 and 90 degrees to the longest dimension of the flaw for best
detectability.
The field intensity must be high enough to cause an indication to form, but
not too high or nonrelevant indications may form that could mask relevant
indications. To cause an indication to form, the field strength in the object
must produce a flux leakage field that is strong enough to hold the magnetic
particles in place over a discontinuity. Flux measurement devices can
provide important information about the field strength. Since it is impractical
to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the devices
measure the magnetic field that is outside of the material.
There are a number of different devices that can be used to detect and
measure an external magnetic field. The two devices commonly used in
magnetic particle inspection are the field indicator and the Hall effect meter,
which is also often called a Gauss meter. Pie gages and shims are devices
that are often used to provided an indication of the field direction and
strength but do not actually provide a quantitative measure.
Field Indicators
Field indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft iron vane
that will be deflected by a magnetic field. The X-ray image below shows the
inside working of a field meter looking in from the side. The vane is
attached to a needle that rotates and moves the pointer for the scale. Field
indicators can be adjusted and calibrated so that quantitative information
can be obtained.
However, the measurement range of field indicators is usually small due to
the mechanics of the device. The one shown to the right has a range from
plus twenty gauss to minus twenty gauss. This limited ranges makes them
best suited for measuring the residual magnetic field after demagnetization.
Hall-Effect (Gauss/Tesla) Meter
This very small size is a result of the process used to form the particles and
is not particularly desirable, as the particles are almost too fine to settle out
of suspension. However, due to their slight residual magnetism, the oxide
particles are present mostly in clusters that settle out of suspension much
faster than the individual particles. This makes it possible to see and
measure the concentration of the particles for process control purposes.
FORGINGS
CASTINGS
WELDMENTS
FORGINGS
In forgings of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, the flaws occur mostly due to
the conditions that exist in the ingot, by subsequent hot working of the ingot or
the billet, and by hot or cold working during forging. Many open-die forgings are
forged from ingots. Many closed-die forgings are forged from rolled billets, or bar
stock. Most of the discontinuities that arise in forgings are due to the
imperfections present in the ingot.
Chemical Segregation
The elements in the alloy are seldom uniformly distributed. Even in unalloyed
elements contain randomly distributed impurities in the form of tramp elements.
Therefore, the composition of metal or alloy will vary. Deviation from the metal
composition at a particular location in a forging is termed as segregation.
Segregations, therefore, produces a metal, having a range of compositions
having no identical properties. Forging can correct the results of segregation by
recrystallizing or breaking the grain structure to provide a more uniform,
homogenous substructure. However, the effects of badly segregated forging
cannot be totally eliminated by forging.
In metals, the presence of localized regions that deviate from the normal
compositions can affect corrosion resistance, forging, and welding
characteristics, mechanical properties fracture toughness, and fatigue
resistance.
In heat-treatable alloys, variations in compositions can reduce unexpected
responses to heat treatments. This may result in hard or soft spots; quench
cracks, or other flaws. The degree of degradation depends on the alloy and
the process variables.
Ingot Pipe and Center-line Shrinkage
A common imperfection in ingot is the shrinkage cavity, commonly known as
Pipe. It is often found in the upper portion of the ingot and occurs during
freezing of the metal, and eventually there is insufficient liquid metal near the
top to feed the ingot. As a result a cavity forms, usually approximating the
shape of the cylinder or cone – hence termed as pipe. In addition to the
primary pipe near the top of the ingot, secondary regions of piping and
centerline shrinkage may extend deeper into an ingot. Primary piping is
generally an economic concern, but if it extends deeper into the ingot body, it
goes undetected. Detection of pipe can be obscured sometimes if bridging has
occurred.
Piping can be eliminated by pouring ingots with the big end up, by providing
risers in the ingot top, and by applying hot top materials immediately after
pouring. Secondary piping can be detrimental as they are harder to detect in
the mill and may produce centerline defects in bar and wrought products.
Nonmetallic Inclusions
They originate in the ingot and are likely to be carried over to the forgings, even though
the material may undergo several intermediate hot-working operations. Most nonmetallic
inclusions originate during solidification from the initial operation. If no further
consumable-re-melting cycles follow, the size, frequency, and distribution of these
inclusions will not be altered. However, if a subsequent vacuum re-melting operation is
used, the inclusions will be lessened in size and frequency and will become more random
in nature.
Two kinds of nonmetallic inclusions are distinguished in metals: Those that are
entrapped in the metal inadvertently and originate exclusively from particles of
matter that are occluded in the metal while it is being molten or being cast; Those
that separate from the metal because of change in temperature or composition.
Inclusions of the latter type are produced by the separation from the metal, when it
is in the liquid or in the solid state. Oxides, sulfides, nitrides and other nonmetallic
compounds are produced in such amounts that their solubility in the matrix is
exceeded.
Internal flaws in forgings often appear as cracks or tears, and may result either from
forging with too light a hammer or from continuing forging after the metal has cooled down
before a safe forging temperature. A number of surface flaws can be produced by the
forging operation. The movement of metal over or upon another surface often causes
these flaws without actual welding or fusing of the surfaces; such flaws may be laps or
folds.
Cold shuts often occur in closed-die forgings. They are junctures of two
adjoining surfaces caused by incomplete metal fill and incomplete fusion of
surfaces. Shear cracks often occur in forgings. They are diagonal cracks
occurring on the trimmed edges and are caused by shear stresses.
Foundry men have traditionally used rather unique names, such as rattail, scab,
buckle, The International Committee of Technical Associations have
standardized the nomenclature, and had categorized the casting defects into
seven categories, namely:
1. Metallic projections.
2. Cavities.
3. Discontinuities.
4. Defects.
5. Incomplete Casting.
6. Incorrect Dimension.
7. Inclusions or Structural anomalies.
Metallic Projections are in the form of fins, with or without change in principal
casting dimensions. The projections could be in the form:
Thin fins at the parting line; veins on the casting surface; network of projections
on the surface; or, thin metallic projections located at the re-entrant.
Massive projections.
Swells- excessive metal in the vicinity of the gate; metal projections in the form of
elongated areas in the direction of mold assembly.
Projections with rough surfaces- on the cope surface; on the drag surface; with
rough surfaces on the other areas of the casting; area formed by the core.
Cavities:
Cavities with generally rounded, smooth walls perceptible to naked eye e.g.
pinholes, blowholes.
Cavities internal to the casting and not extending to the surface, are discernable
only by special methods, machining or by fracture of casting. Some of them are
given below:
Descriptions Common Name
Cavities
Discontinuities
Normal Cracking:
Process:
1.Porosity: Generally, porosity occurs due bubbles of gas entrapped in the molten
gas during solidification. The various types of porosities are discussed below.
Surface porosity: These are gas pores, which break the surface of the weld.
The evolution of large quantities of gas, which have been able to reach the
surface of the weld pool. The origins of surface porosity are similar to uniform
porosity, but the degree of contamination required is much greater. In addition,
excessive sulfur in the parent material, e.g. free cutting steels, or in the
consumables, can cause surface porosity.
Crated Pipes: The depression due to shrinkage at the end of a weld run, where the
source of heat is removed. The pipe is caused by a combination of interrupted
de-oxidation reactions and the liquid- to-solid volume change.
Linear Inclusions (Slag Inclusions): Slag or other matter entrapped during welding.
The inclusions are of a linear form and are situated parallel to the weld axis.
Isolated Slag Inclusions: Slag or any other matter entrapped during welding. The
defect is of irregular in shape and thus differs from a gas pore. The causes for
a linear inclusion to occur is same for an isolated inclusions, except for the fact
that, isolated indication can be either linear or rounded.
Lack of root fusion: Lack of union at the root of the weld. This may occur due to
the following reasons:
1. Incorrect welding conditions.
2. Too low arc energy.
3. Too high travel speed.
4. Incorrect electrode angle.
5. Molten metal flooding ahead of the arc because of work
position.
6. Electrode diameter too large in manual metal arc welding.
7. Excessive root face and/ or undersize root gap.
If the lack of root fusion is accessible from the root side, dye penetrant system is
used to detect this defect. Considered as detrimental defect, by almost all
codes and standards. If the defective area is accessible from the root side, the
root defect should be cut out or defect line widened and re-welded. If the root
defect is not accessible for the root side, the complete weld must be cut out
and re-welded.
Lack of Sidewall Fusion: Lack of fusion between the weld and the parent metal at a
side of the weld. The common causes for the occurrence of this defect is due
to incorrect welding conditions, such as, arc energy too low; travel speed too
fast; Incorrect electrode angle; molten metal flooding ahead of arc because of
Lack of Inter-Run Fusion: This is otherwise termed as inter pass lack of fusion.
This is caused due to lack of union between adjacent runs of weld metal in a
multi-pass weld. The common causes for the occurrence of this defect is due
to incorrect welding conditions, such as, arc energy too low; travel speed too
fast; Incorrect electrode angle; molten metal flooding ahead of arc because of
work position.
10.Incomplete root penetration: Failure of weld metal to extend into the root of
a joint. This may occur due to the following reasons:
• Excessively thick root face of insufficient root gap.
• Use of vertical down welding, when vertical up has been specified to achieve
root penetration.
• Incorrect welding conditions, e.g. arc power too low; travel speed too high;
incorrect diameter of electrode.
• Slag flooding
• Misalignment of second side of the weld
• Failure to cut back to sound metal in a back gouging operation.
If lack of penetration extends to an accessible side, dye penetrant testing can be
used. Generally removed by cut out of weld, and re-welded, as the strength of
the weld joint is more concentrated in the root.
11.Arc strikes: Random areas of fused metal where the electrode, the holder, or
current return lamp, have accidentally touched the work and produced a short
duration arc. An arc strike can produce a hard heat-affected zone (HAZ). It
may contain cracks.
.Cracks: The most commonly encountered cracking phenomena in weldments can
be classified as follows:
Hot Cracking: Cracks initiate in a solidifying metal under the influence of low
melting constituents are termed as hot cracks. The temperature range of
solidification mainly governs the tendency for hot cracking. Larger the range,
greater the tendency. Hot cracking in steel is most often caused due to the
presence of the impurity element sulfur. The sulfur combines with iron to form
iron sulfide. This liquid iron sulfide, in the presence of sulfur, would act as a
lubricant and the grains would slide over one another to absorb the shrinkage
strains and form a void. These voids coagulate to form a cavity, which is the
origin of hot crack. Hot cracking is also promoted by the presence of carbon
content, which extends the solidification temperature range. The effect of this
on the hot cracking tendency is obvious.
Cold cracking: Cracks, which initiate in weldments under the combined influence
of residual stresses, microstructure, hydrogen content are termed as Cold
Cracks. Since these cracks initiate only in the solid state, the name cold
cracks was derived. This type of cracking has also several other names, such
as, Delayed Cracking, Hydrogen Induced cracking, etc., Cold cracks are
directly influenced by the welding conditions and the welding procedure used.
Cold cracks are transgranular in nature, and are observed in the heat affected
zone (HAZ) of the weldments, hence referred to as HAZ Cracks. Since these
cracks can initiate several hours to several weeks after the completion of the
welding, they are termed as Delayed Cracking.
Lamellar Tearing: Lamellar tearing is a form of crack, which occurs in the base
metal of weldments, often outside the transformed HAZ and is generally
parallel to the weld fusion boundary. Lamellar tearing is generally associated
with weld joints in base materials with insufficient short transverse (through
thickness) ductility. It is also associated with elongated or aligned inclusions,
which cause poor short-transverse mechanical properties.
Stress Relief Cracking: This cracking is also known as Reheat Cracking, and is
observed in creep resistant steels containing molybdenum and vanadium. This
crack appears during the stress-relieving treatment given to the weldments,
and is found in the HAZ. This crack is Intergranular in nature and is often
aggravated by the presence of high residual stresses, high stress
concentration due to notches introduced by welding and high restraints in the
weldments.
Excess Weld Metal: The extra metal which produces convexity in fillet welds and
weld thicknesses greater than the parent metallate in butt welds. The term
“reinforcement” is misleading, since he excess does not normally produce a
stronger weld in a butt joint. In certain situations, however, excess metal may
be required for metallurgical reasons. This feature of weld is regarded as a
defect only when the height of the excess metal is greater than the specified
limits.
15.Undercut: During the final pass or cover pass, the exposed upper edges of the
beveled weld preparation tend to melt and run down into the deposited metal in the
groove. Undercutting often occurs when insufficient filler metal is deposited to fill
the resultant grooves at the edge of the weld bead. Excessive welding current,
incorrect arc length, incorrect manipulation etc may cause undercutting.
Burn Through: A burn through is that portion of the weld bead where excessive
penetration has caused the weld pool to be blown into the pipe or vessel. It is
caused by the factors that produce excessive heat in one area, such as high
current, slow rod speed, incorrect rod manipulation etc.
VARIABLES IN MAGNETIC
PARTICLE INSPECTION
Magnetic particle testing is not an isolated technical discipline. It is a
combination of two distinct nondestructive testing techniques; flux leakage
testing and visual inspection. The basic principle of magnetic particle testing
is to magnetize a part to a flux density that causes magnetic leakage from a
discontinuity. Powdered ferromagnetic material is then passed through the
leakage field and the operator visually interprets those held over the
discontinuity.
The key to ideal magnetic particle inspection is to provide the highest sensitivity
to smallest possible discontinuity. This can be achieved through careful
combination of:
In a magnetic particle test, it is important to raise the field strength and the flux
density in the object to a level that produces a flux leakage sufficient for
holding the particles in place over discontinuities.
On the other hand, excessive magnetization causes the particles to stick together
to minor leakage fields not caused due to discontinuities.If such leakage occurs
and attracts large number of particles, the result is a false indication and the test
object is said to be over magnetized for this inspection. Such false indications
may result from local permeability changes, which are caused by local stresses
in the test object. In some cases, the flux leakage may be caused by a subsurface
discontinuity and may not be possible to distinguish the cause for the leakage
field without the use of additional NDT methods.
Discontinuity Parameters
The discontinuity parameters are critical and they include depth, width, and angle
to the object surface. In cases where the discontinuity is narrow surface breaking
(seams, laps, quench cracks, and grind tears), the magnetic flux leakage near the
mouth of discontinuity is highly curved.
In case of subsurface discontinuities (inclusions and laminations), the leakage
field is much less curved. Relatively high values of field strength and flux
density within the object are required for testing. This lack of leakage curvature
greatly reduces the particle’s ability to stick to such indications.
The magnetic field parameters that most affect flux leakage are the field
strength, local B – H properties, and the angle to the discontinuity opening.
The leakage field’s ability to attract the magnetic particles is determined by
several additional factors. These include:
•The magnetic forces between the magnetic flux leakage field and the particle;
•Image forces between a magnetized particle and its magnetic image in the
surface plane of the test object;
•Gravitational forces that may act to pull the particle into or out of the leakage
site; and
•Surface tension forces between particle vehicle and the object surface for wet
method tests.
•Some of these forces may in turn vary with discontinuity orientation, earth’s
gravitational field, particle size and shape, and type of medium.
Surface Discontinuities
The largest and most important category of discontinuity consists of those that are
exposed to the surface. Surface cracks or discontinuities are effectively located
with magnetic particle testing. Surface discontinuities are also the most
detrimental to the service life of the component than subsurface discontinuities
and as a result they are more frequent of inspection. Magnetic particle inspection
is capable of detecting seams, laps, quenching cracks and surface ruptures in
castings, forgings, and weldments. For maximum detectability, the discontinuity
should essentially lie perpendicular to the magnetic field. This is especially true for
a discontinuity that is small and fine. The characteristics of a discontinuity that
enhance its detectability are:
Many incipient fatigue cracks and fine grinding cracks are less than 0.025mm deep
and have surface openings of perhaps 1/10th of thickness or less. Such cracks are
readily detected by wet method. The depth of the crack has a pronounced effect on
its detectability; the deeper the crack, the stronger the indication for a given level
of magnetization. This is because the stronger flux causes greater distortion of the
field in the part. This is effect is particularly not noticeable beyond 6mm. in depth.
If the crack is not tight-lipped, but wide-open at the surface, the reluctance of the
resulting air gap reduces the strength of the leakage field. This combined with the
inability of the particles to bridge the gap results in a weaker indication. Surface
opening also plays a part in detectability. A surface scratch, which may be as wide
at the surface, usually does not produce indications, although they may, at high
levels of magnetization. Thus so many variables influence the formation of a
indication.
There are also certain limitations regarding a crack, which is tightlipped virtually
eliminating the presence of air gap, produce no indications. Sometimes, with
careful interpretation and maximizing techniques, faint indications of such cracks
may be produced. One other type of discontinuity that sometimes poses a problem
for its detectability is a forging or a rolling lap. In this case, the leakage field
produced is weak due to small angle of emergence and the resultant high
reluctance gap. Hence when such conditions, demands its detectability, DC
magnetization with the use of wet fluorescent method is desirable.In general, a
surface discontinuity, whose depth is at least 5 times it’s opening at the surface,
will be detected.
Internal Discontinuities
Magnetic particle inspection is also capable of detecting subsurface
discontinuities. Although radiography and ultrasonic methods are extensively used
in the detection of subsurface discontinuities, the shape of the discontinuities,
sometimes, initiates the requirement for magnetic particle examination.
The internal discontinuities that can be detected by magnetic particle inspection
can be divided into two groups:
The tool steel ring is a commonly used standard reference standard for magnetic
particle test systems, but it essentially indicates only particle sensitivity. Its
use has been for both dry and wet mediums. The sample picture of the ring is
shown below.
3400 7
2500 9
3400 9
Pie gages are disks of high permeability material divided into triangular
segments separated by known gaps. The gaps are typically filled with a
nonmagnetic material. The pie gage contains 8 segments, separated by gaps up
to 0.75mm, which run to full depth of the material.
Raised cross indicators contain 4 gaps (in the shape of a cross) approximately
0.13mm (0.5”) in width. The segments are cut away so that the known gap is
raised a fixed distance off the test object’s surface.
Both of these devices are used to determine the approximate orientation and to
a limited extent, indicate the adequacy of the field strength. However, they do
not measure the internal field strength of the object. The presence of multiple
gaps at different orientations helps reveal the approximate orientation of the
magnetic field. Slots perpendicular to the flux lines produce distinct
indications, while those lying parallel to the magnetic flux give little or no
indications.
1. Relevant Indications
2. Nonrelevant Indications
3. False Indications
NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS
Nonrelevant indications are true patterns caused by leakage fields that do not result
from the presence of flaws. Nonrelevant indications have several causes and their
indication is fuzzy as that of a subsurface discontinuity indication. They should not
be interpreted as flaws and therefore require careful evaluation.
Particle patterns that yield Nonrelevant indications can be the result of many factors.
They include the following:
The particle adherence at leakage fields around sharp corners, ridges, or other surface
irregularities when magnetized too strongly causes the adherence of powders in
these areas when longitudinally magnetized. The use of too strong current with
circular
magnetization can produce indications of flux lines of the external field. Both of the
above phenomenon’s are recognized by experienced operators and can be eliminated
by reducing the current and retesting.
Mill Scale
Tightly adhering mill scale will cause particle buildup, not only because of
mechanical adherence, but also due to the difference in permeability between
scale and the test object. In most cases, this can be detected by a visual
inspection prior to carrying out magnetic particle inspection. Additional cleaning
followed by retesting will confirm the absence of true discontinuity.
Configurations
Configurations that result from in a restriction of the magnetic field are a cause
for this type of nonrelevant indication. Typical restrictive configurations are
internal notches such as splines, threads, grooves for indexing, or keyways.
Magnetized Writing
Relevant indications are indications caused due to leakage flux emanating from
the actual discontinuities. They are the result of errors made during or after metal
processing. They may or may not be considered defects.
Terminology
Discontinuity: is any interruption in the normal physical structure or composition
of a part. It can also be termed as an intentional or unintentional lack in
continuity. If the lack in continuity is intentional, such as a case of a design
requirement, then the indication arising from these discontinuities are termed as
Nonrelevant indications. If the lack in continuity is unintentional, the indications
arising from these are termed as Relevant indications. Examples of such type of
indications are cracks, porosity, lack of fusion, lack of penetration, etc.
Defect: is any discontinuity that interferes with the service life or application of
the component is termed as a defect. It can also be defined as an imperfection of
sufficient magnitude to warrant rejection of a part with respect to standards.
Classification of Indications
Relevant indications are further classified as either linear or rounded. The linear
indication is one having a length greater than three times the width.
A rounded indication is one having a length equal to or less than three times its
width. A rounded indication need not be essentially rounded; it may be circular,
or elliptical in shape.
An indication is the evidence of a mechanical imperfection. Only indications
that have any dimension greater than 1/16” (1.6mm) shall be considered
relevant. Any questionable or doubtful indication shall be reexamined to
determine whether or not they are relevant.
ACCEPTANCE STANDARDS
Everything that has been said in this discussion thus for has emphasized the
fact that general rules for evaluation cannot be wholly laid down. These are
not necessary for an evaluator with sufficient knowledge and experience.
Sometimes there exists a situation where inspectors are called upon to make
decisions regarding the seriousness of a defect. Hence it should be the
inspector’s responsibility to be aware of the general conditions, which will be
of great use to him in demanding conditions.
As a guide for inspectors, a few basic considerations are set forth below:
The shape, sharpness of the outline, width, and height to which the build up are
the principle features by which discontinuities can be identified and distinguished
from each other.
Surface Cracks
Powder patterns for surface cracks are sharply defined, tightly held and usually
built up heavily. The deeper the crack, the heavier the buildup of the indication.
Crater cracks are recognized by a small indication at the terminal point of the
weld. The indication may be single line or multiple or star-shaped
.
Incomplete Fusion
Accumulation of powder will generally be pronounced and the edge of the weld
indicated. The closer the incomplete fusion is to the surface, the sharper the
pattern.
Undercut
A pattern is produced at the weld edge that adheres less strongly than the
indications obtained from an incomplete fusion. Undercut can also be detected by
visual examination.
Subsurface Discontinuities
The powder patterns have a fuzzy appearance and or not clearly defined. They are
neither strong nor pronounced; yet they are readily distinguished from the
indications of surface conditions.
Slag Inclusions
Seams
The indications are straight, sharp, and often intermittent. Buildup is small. A
magnetizing current greater than required for the detection of the cracks is
necessary.
ACCEPTANCE
STANDARDS
Acceptance as per ASME-BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE
Linear Indications: are those in which length is more than three times the width;
rounded indications are indications, which are circular or elliptical with the
length less than three times the width.
The following relevant indications are unacceptable:
ACCPETANCE STANDARDS
1. Linear indications are evaluated as crater cracks or star cracks and exceed
5/32” (3.96mm) in length.
2. Linear indications are evaluated as cracks other than crater cracks or star
cracks.
3. Linear indications are evaluated as Incomplete Fusion and exceeds 1 inch
(25.4mm) in total length in a continuous 12 inches (304.8mm) length of the weld
or 8% of the weld length.
CP that occurs in the finish pass shall be unacceptable when any of the
following conditions exists:
• The diameter of the cluster exceeds ½ “ (12.7mm).
• The aggregate length of CP in any 12” continuous weld length exceeds ½” .
• An individual pore within a cluster exceeds 1/16” in size.
Magnetic Particle
Indications
One of the advantages that a magnetic particle inspection has over some of
the other nondestructive evaluation methods is that flaw indications
generally resemble the actual flaw. This is not the case with NDT methods
such as ultrasonic and eddy current inspection, where an electronic signal
must be interpreted. When magnetic particle inspection is used, cracks on
the surface of the part appear as sharp lines that follow the path of the
crack. Flaws that exist below the surface of the part are less defined and
more difficult to detect. Below are some examples of magnetic particle
indications.
Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a cracks in a drive shaft
Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in the
crane hook
Magnetic particle dry powder indication of a crack in a saw blade
Magnetic particle dry powder indication of cracks in weldment
Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in casting
Demagnetization
Methods
Demagnetization is a process of removing magnetism from a ferromagnetic
material. Ferromagnetic materials are characterized by a relative ease of
magnetism when exposed to a magnetizing force. Once magnetized, the
material retains some amount of magnetism even after the magnetizing force
is removed. This left over field in the material, after the force is removed is
referred to as the residual field or residual magnetism. The magnitude of this
residual field is a function of the following factors:
1. The residual field is in the same direction as the original magnetic field.
2. The residual field is weaker than the original field.
3. The original magnetizing force causes the residual field.
4. When an article has been magnetized in more than one direction, the second
field applied will completely overcome the first field. However, this is only
true if the second field applied, is stronger than the first in magnitude.
After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to
demagnetize the component. Remanent magnetic fields can:
The residual fields may sometimes be allowed to remain in the part, without
demagnetizing it. The reasons for not demagnetizing being:
Fastest and the most simple method for demagnetization is to pass current
through a high intensity AC coil and slowly withdrawing the part form the coil. A
coil of 5000 – 10000 Ampere-turns, line frequency from 50 – 60 Hz is
recommended. The part to be demagnetized should enter the coil from a 12”
distance and move through it steadily and slowly until the piece is 36” beyond
the coil. The operation is repeated until all of the residual magnetism is being
removed. The strength of the field is gradually reduced to zero as the object
exists the coil and reaches a point beyond the influence of the coil’s field.
Rotating and tumbling the part while passing through the field of the coil can
achieve demagnetization of smaller parts.
This type is usually associated with large test objects that have been
magnetized using DC source. It is also applicable where AC demagnetization
procedures prove ineffective. The method requires high values of current or full-
wave rectified AC that can be directed to a coil or plate. There must be also
provisions for reversing the polarity and reducing the amplitude, to zero.
Although fewer steps may yield satisfactory results, greater reliability is
achieved by using about 30 reversals and current reductions to approach zero
asymptotically.
Reversing Cable Wrap Method
AC yokes may be used for local demagnetization by placing the poles on the
surface and moving them around the area and slowly withdrawing the yoke,
while it is still energized.
It is often inconvenient to heat a material above it curie temperature to
demagnetize it so another method that returns the material to a nearly
unmagnetized state is commonly used. Subjecting the component to a
reversing and decreasing magnetic field will return the dipoles to a nearly
randomly oriented throughout the material. This can be accomplished by
pulling a component out and away from a coil with AC passing through it.
The same can also be accomplished using an electromagnetic yoke with
AC selected. Also, many stationary magnetic particle inspection units
come in a demagnetization feature that slow reduce the AC in a coil in
which that component is placed.
Residual Field Measurement
After complete demagnetization, the residual field should not exceed 3 Gauss
(240Am-1), anywhere in the piece. So in order to relatively maintain the
recommended limits of residual field in the material, the measurement of the
level of residual field is necessary. This is achieved through a Residual Field
Meter, commonly known as Gauss Meter.
(a) (c)
(b)
Because the vane is under the influence of the magnet, it tends to align its long
axis in the direction of the leakage field emanating from the magnet. In doing so,
the vane becomes magnetized in a fixed position. In the absence of external
magnetic fields, the pointer reads zero on the graduated scale. When the north
pole of the residually magnetized object is moved closer to the pivot end of the
pointer, the south pole of the vane is attracted towards the object and the north
pole of the magnet is repelled. The resulting torque causes the pointer to move in
the positive (+) direction.
The relative strength of the residual field is measured by bringing the indicator
near the object and noting the reflection of the pointer. The edge of the pivot end
of the pointer should be closest to the object under investigation. To increase the
accuracy and repeatability of such measurements, it is a good practice to isolate
the device from extraneous magnetic fields. If such fields magnetize them, the
sensitivity of these devices becomes substantially reduced.
POST EXAMINATION CLEANING
The effect of particles, if allowed to remain on the test surface, can cause difficulty
in subsequent processes such as painting or coating, or even a shot-blasting
operation (when tested using wet medium). Hence it is recommended to
remove the magnetic particles after the inspection, which is referred to as Post-
cleaning.