DR ROSNIAH MUSTAFFA

PPBL, FSSK
The role of listening
 Listening – the ‘neglected’ ‘overlooked’
or ‘taken for granted’ skill.
 Assumed that listening ability will
develop automatically through exposure
to the language.
 Of the time an individual is engaged in
communication, 9%-writing, 16%
reading, 30% speaking and 45%
listening. So, listening is important

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listening process.
 Bottom-up process in listening- we use our
knowledge of language and our ability to
process acoustic signals to make sense of the
sounds that speech presents to us.

 We use whatever clues available to infer

meaning- the placement of stress, pauses, non
verbal behaviour etc

 Assign meanings to words and use logical

reasoning to infer relationship bet them - Rain
in Johor damaged property. Thousands
homeless

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 During the processes of identifying sounds, inferring meaning and
anticipating what comes next, memory clearly plays a crucial role.

 We can only hold word sequences for only a few seconds and only
initial analysis of the language is possible, concentrating on key
words or pauses or other significant features.

 The load on the short term memory is heavy as listeners try to hold
various parts of the message in mind while inferring meaning and
deciding what is necessary to retain.

 Overload can occur if there is too much unfamiliar info and the
greater part of a message can be lost. It is the gist of the spoken
message rather than its detailed structure that is retained and stored
in the long term memory

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 Top – down process in listening – involve knowledge
that a listener brings to a text sometimes called ‘inside
the head’ info as opposed to the info that is available
within the text itself.

 Top down listening infers meaning from contextual clues

and from making links between the spoken message
and various types of prior knowledge which listeners
hold inside their heads.

 Contextual clues to meaning come from knowledge of

the particular situation

 Prior knowledge has been termed schematic knowledge

which consists of the mental frameworks we hold in our
memories for various topics.

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 One category schemata used by listeners is formal
schemata. A second category of schemata is that of
content schemata which include general world
knowledge, sociocultural knowledge and topic
knowledge.

 Local knowledge might be necessary to infer meaning

 Both function simultaneously and are mutually

dependent.

 the current model of listening is therefore an interactive

one in which linguistic information, contextual clues and
prior knowledge interact to enable comprehension.
Comprehension is always only selective and partial

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 Brown and Yule [1983a] suggest dividing
language functions into-

 1. language for transactional purpose.

 2. language for interactional purposes.

 Transactional language function-message

oriented focus on content and conveying
factual info.

 Clarity and precision

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 Interactional language function- social type
talk; person oriented more than message
oriented.

 Objective-to establish and maintain social

relationship

 Important features- identifying with other

person’s concerns, being nice etc

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Uncertainties for foreign language listeners
 Environmental uncertainties - background conversation,
traffic noise etc muttering
 Uncertainties of confidence-learners often have unrealistic
expectations and try to understand each word of a listening
text
 Uncertainties from presentation of speech-unplanned and
unrehearsed spoken language is very different from the
language of written texts
 -repetitions, pauses, fillers, false starts, incomplete
sentences, restructurings, and corrections which are typical
of speech. If we are training students ultimately to be able to
manage real listening situations, we need to build their
confidence in dealing with authentic speech.

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 Uncertainties because of gaps in the message-
environmental noise, poorly articulated speech or poor
attention can be responsible for creating gaps in the
message that a listener hears.

 Uncertain strategies-in face to face communication, if a

gap occurs in the message, a listener can ask for
clarification

 Uncertainties of language-if the purpose of listening is

for input and the text presents grammar, vocab and
certain phonological features.[use recordings made for
English language learners]
 –if the purpose is to develop the ability to deal with
listening outside the classroom, then texts will be
needed which present natural language
 [ spontaneous informal talk]

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 Uncertainties of content.
 required to make sense of a text –stds may experience
difficulty in inferring and interpreting meaning. The
language is not likely to cause problems but a lack of
schematic knowledge may well do so.

 Major implication here for teaching listening is the need for

a pre-listening stage in which existing prior knowledge can
be activated and missing prior knowledge can be
introduced

 visual uncertainties- speakers usually provides non verbal

clues to meaning eg lip movements, facial expressions
and gestures. The role of vision in first language listening
especially lip movements is particularly imp when the
auditory input is of poor quality

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 3 communicative listening modes-
1. Bidirectional-two-way communicative
listening. Take turns exchanging
speaker role and listener role.

2. Unidirectional – we hear speakers but

unable to interact. [overheard
conversation, anouncements, radio etc]

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 3. Autodirectional – a self-dialogue
communication in which we may not be
aware of our internal roles as both speaker
and listener/reactor in our own thought
process

 We attend to our own internal language

which we produce as we think such as
planning strategies or making decision by
talking and listening to ourselves

 Listening is not a passive experience

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 the pre-listening stage- to contextualize the
text, providing any info needed to help
learners appreciate the setting and the role
relationships between participants.

 predicting content from the title of a talk;

talking about a picture which relates to the
text; discussing the topic; answering a set of
questions about the topic; and agreeing or
disagreeing with opinions about the topic

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 while listening- the work at the while listening
stage needs to link in relevant ways to the
pre-listening work. The aim is to conform
learners’ expectations and to help them to
get the gist of the content as it relates to the
written text

 post listening- intensive phase of study

where aspects of bottom up listening are
practiced eg intensive listening for note
taking, summarize content of text

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Speaking
 Following the rules
 When people with similar cultural and linguistic
backgrounds get together they speak to each
other easily because they know the rules of
conversation in their language and their shared
culture.
 When they write to each other they obey certain
conventions. Such rules and conventions are
not written anywhere, nor are they easy to
define. But at some cultural level our shared
schemata help us to communicate with each
other successfully.

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 areas of rules which we should consider;
 sociocultural rules
 speakers from similar cultural backgrounds know how to
speak to each other , how formal to be, what kind of
language they can use, how loud to speak, or how close
to stand to each other. Such rules or shared cultural
habits - determine how we speak to each other, when
participants are of different social or professional status.
 guide our behaviour in a number of speech events eg
invitation conversations, socialising and negotiations.
 turn-taking
 in any conversation decisions have to be taken about
when each person should speak by knowing how to
signal verbally or visually that they want a turn, by
recognising when other speakers are signalling they
want to finish and therefore giving them space to take a
speaking turn.

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 Different styles, different genres

 Our language use is determined by several factors. First is

the purpose of our communication, what we want to achieve.
 to achieve that purpose is determined by the setting, the
channel we are using to communicate by, and the type of
communication [genre] which we are involved with.

 If we want to give people facts[our purpose] in a lecture

theatre[setting] through a microphone [channel] we will use a
lecture genre with its typical patterns of organisation, and this
genre will determine the style of the language we use.

 This is different from how we transmit the same information to

a friend in an informal conversation. This in turn would be
different from the kind of language we use when writing the
same information in a magazine genre; when exchanging e
mails on the subject with a colleague our use of language will
be different.

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 Skills and strategies in speaking English

 Reasons for practising speaking in the classroom- to keep up rapport

in relationships, influence people, and win negotiations. It is a skill by
which they are judged , first impressions are being formed. Learning
to speak competently is a complex task.

 Learners need to develop at the same time a knowledge of grammar,

vocabulary, functional language and communicative skills. Attention
to the systems of language, development of fluency and contextual
appropriacy

 Contextual appropriacy means that the language chosen for a

particular message depends on the setting, the status of the
participants, and their role relationship. I’m opening the window, ok?’ /
‘do you mind if I open the window?’

 fluency - responding coherently during a conversation, linking words

and phrases, using intelligible pronunciation and appropriate
intonation, without hesitation. - shows speakers can interpret and
assess the meaning of what they hear and response appropriately.

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 communicative approaches - stds should be able to
produce features of pronunciation, vocabulary and
structure accurately, and practice using these features
more freely in purposeful communication - usual to
include both accuracy –and fluency based activities.
However, there are more aspects to conversation than
these.
 What is involved in terms of managing interaction - there
are skills relating to opening and closing conversations,
the sharing of time, turn taking , shorter and longer turns
attending to and responding to one’s interlocutor, and to
interrupting.
 If any of these are lacking or poorly performed-
communication break down.
 reasons for breakdown - lack of language to undertake
these skills effectively or differences in the cultural
conventions associated with them.

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 Use communication strategies to achieve clear
communication when lack words, phrases, or structures
in English - gestures and paraphrase.
 Interaction is negotiation of meaning. Speakers need to
check that they have been understood and may need to
repeat or clarify what they said, need to adjust what they
say to be comprehensible. Listeners play a part in the
process - asking for explanations, correcting
 Second language acquisition researchers see
communicative interaction as using the language they
have learned until it is automatized.
 The challenge for the communicative classroom is to
find activities and procedures for speaking which will
prepare students for spontaneous interaction and which
will aid acquisition process
 This means finding answers to questions about what
various activities can encourage.

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 Which activities encourage participation from
all students and ensure that they all get
practice opportunities?
 Which activities require the practice of turn-
taking skills?
 Which activities encourage longer turns?
 Which activities oblige negotiation of
meaning?
 Which activities give students practice in
initiating conversations?

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What is involved in speaking English competently
 1. Distinguishing types of speaking situation

 Conversation - unstructured and informal, more

formal , more rehearsed situations eg meetings,
interviews and seminars.

 The purpose of conversation vary - making and

keeping social contacts, exchanging news,
information and opinions and making decisions
with other people.

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 Conversation - interactional and transactional
speaking situation

 Interactional -establishing and maintaining

social relations

 Transactional- exchanging information in order

to get a job done, and service encounters

 Some content and pattern of exchanges are

predictable, set phrases are used.

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 Labov [1972] suggests a six-part structure to
an oral narrative of personal experience
[sequence might vary] The framework -
storytelling activities and creating stories.

 Abstract –what was this about?

 Orientation-Who? When? What? Where?
 Complication –then what happened?
 Evaluation – so what?/highlight main point
 Result-what finally happened/resolution to
crisis

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 Anecdotes and accounts of personal experience
- an initial way of getting students to speak at
greater length, to develop and structure their
speech

 Farewell speeches, business presentations of

new products, appraisal interviews and
presentations of a problem and its potential
solutions at a scientific conference, also have
noticeable shapes and a study of these might
facilitate ways of practising them

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 2. making oneself understood
 Trying to express what they wanted to say but
lacking the vocab and structures they needed,
-use one or more communication strategies
 Faerch & Kasper[1983] - avoidance behavior-
learner try to eliminate a problem by changing
the topic or not participating in a conversation
 Achievement behaviour- ways are found to cope
with the problem, eg switching to the first
language, word coinage, often influenced by the
first language, restructuring, a direct appeal for
help from the listener and gesture

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 Implication-
 For the teacher- appreciate and understand what is
happening when students use communication
strategies.
 Communication strategies can be strong indicators
of gaps and uncertainties about what to focus on in
feedback
 The other way in which learners work to make
themselves understood is through negotiation of
meaning eg. The speaker may produce an
inaccurate message –
 A:You musn’t come except you bring the children
 B: I’m sorry, shall I bring my children ?

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 Or a listener may have difficulty interpreting a
message because the speaker has mistakenly
assumed shared knowledge.
 Speakers therefore need the ability to negotiate
until the meaning is clear - using achievement
strategies such as a paraphrase or gesture.
 It also involves knowing the language needed for
checking whether or not a listener has understood
and as a listener, knowing the language needed to
request for clarification or repetition or indicating
comprehension.
 It is good for teachers to teach the language that
will help with negotiation of meaning.

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 3. managing interaction
 For conversation to open, progress, and close smoothly
and productively, speakers need to follow the rules that
govern normal interactions.
 Need to know the cultural conventions, the appropriate
formality in style of speech and the level of politeness
that is appropriate to the relationship between the
participants.
 Openings and closings-
 Conventional ways of opening a conversation in English
[it’s a nice day, isn’t it?] -attention getting and can lead to
further conversation.
 Closings need to be carefully negotiated as there is
usually a pre-closing signal [well, I must think about
going…or I don’t want to keep you…] before the actually
closing
 Some researchers have suggested that textbooks lack
adequate material for teaching closing.

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 Responding appropriately in fixed routines
 The term ‘adjacency pair’ - a turn by one speaker requires an
immediate response, as in greetings, invitations, compliments,
enquiries about health and complaints.
 They also need relevant cultural competence to know what is an
appropriate response. [how are you-and you]

 Taking turns
 one of the greatest difficulties is entering a conversation. –it
requires a rapid sequence : watching for signs the speaker is
coming to a close [falling intonation], giving signals to come in [eg
raised eyebrows, leaning forward, looking at the speaker intently,
coughing], formulating a turn which fits the flow of the conversation
and to pick up on what has already been said; and finding the
language to express it.
 Devices to invite other speakers to contribute - tag endings like
‘isn’t it?’, questions ‘what do you think?’, and ‘would you agree?’.
 Interrupting is difficult as cultural conventions may differ from their
first language. Students need to acquire the politeness phrases
which make interruption acceptable .

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 Topic management
 Aspects of managing interaction-the kind of
topics chosen, how topics are introduced, and
how speakers move from one topic to another
 Demand on learners of English – to know which
topics are appropriate with which kinds of
people.
 - how to change the topic, as in ‘by the way…’
or ‘that reminds me…’it is quite normal for
informal conversation to move quickly through a
number of topics and learners need a repertoire
of topics in order to participate effectively

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 In summary, successful oral communication involves
developing-
1. The ability to articulate phonological features of the
language comprehensibly
2. Mastery of stress, rhythm, intonation patterns;
3. An acceptable degree of fluency
4. Transactional and interpersonal skills
5. Skills in taking short and long speaking turns
6. Skills in the management of interaction
7. Skills in negotiating meaning
8. Conversational listening skills[successful
conversations require good listeners as well as good
speakers]
9. Skills in knowing about and negotiating purposes for
conversations
10. Using appropriate conversational formulae and fillers
11. [Nunan 1989a:32]
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 Designing a program begins with the preparation of
goals, samples of which are-
1. How to use conversation for both transactional and
interactional purposes
2. How to produce both short and long turns in
conversation
3. Strategies for managing turn-taking in conversation,
including taking a turn, holding a turn, and
relinquishing a turn
4. Strategies for opening and closing conversations
5. How to initiate and respond to talk on a broad range of
topics, and how to develop and maintain talk on these
topics
6. How to use both a casual style of speaking and a
neutral or more formal style

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7. How to use conversation in different social settings and
for different kinds of social encounters, such as on the
telephone, at informal and formal social gatherings

8. Strategies for repairing trouble spots in conversation,

including communication breakdown and
comprehension problems

9. How to maintain fluency in conversation, through

avoiding excessive pausing, breakdowns, and errors of
grammar or pronunciation

10. How to produce talk in a conversational mode, using a

conversational register and syntax

11. How to use conversational fillers and small talk

12. How to use conversational routines

[ Richards 1990:79,81]
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