|



 
Classical Conditioning
Instrumental Conditioning
(Operant Conditioning)

 
Latent Learning
 =
   e simplest form of learning
An organism¶s response to a stimulus will decline
following repeated presentations of a stimulus.



 
Presentation of a new stimulus leads to an increase in responsiveness

 is form of learning can be used to investigate t e

memory capacities of preverbal infants.

2-mont old infant 4-mont old infant

Looking Looking
time No abituation time
abituation dis abituation

Repeated Present Repeated

observations Present
Object 2 observations Object 2
of Object 1 of Object 1
Yarly t eories of learning were proposed by t e Britis p ilosop ers,
Jo n Locke and George Berkeley, in t e 1600¶s.

 ey defined learning as t e R
 R 





R


 is premise underlies t e fundamental assumptions from a

sc ool of t oug t known as ›


· Assumes t at t ere are general laws of learning

· Learning is based on establis ing associations

· Complex be aviors are assembled from simple ones

· ind as no place in t e scientific study of be avior

   
   
       
     
    
        
 !   "

G.W. Leibniz, Preface to 


  (1703-05)
  

Ivan Pavlov
1849-1936
Nobel Laureate

One of Pavlov¶s dogs


# 

‰alivation is a p ysiological
reflex to food.
Unconditioned response

A tone is presented at t e
same time as t e food.

An a
a
 between t e
tone and food is establis ed.

After training, t e tone presented

alone will elicit salivation.

 e UR and CR are similar, but

not necessarily identical.

  $#  
A conditioned response is not permanent. If t e tone is repeatedly
presented wit out food, t e salivation response will gradually decay.

If t e tone is presented
alone after some period
of time following
extinction, t ere will be
some recovery of
conditioned salivation.

 ese findings s ow
t at t ere are 


 
 

Important Question At some point, even spontaneous recovery will be completely

extinguis ed. Has t e association been erased?

No. If t e dog is u 

  following complete extinction, fewer pairings of food (U‰) and
tone (C‰) will be required to reestablis t e salivation response to tone alone.
‰ %| &#| 

‰econd-order conditioning
Generalization
Discrimination
emporal Contiguity
Contingency
 ‰
  


(1) U‰ (food) paired wit C‰1 (metronome)

etronome and food

(2) C‰1 (metronome ) is paired wit C‰2 (lig t)

Lig t and metronome
(no food)

(3) C‰2 (lig t) alone elicits salivation, alt oug at a reduced level
easure amount of conditioning to lig t alone.

Learning is based on establis ing associations

Complex be aviors are assembled from simple ones

‰econd-order conditioning is t oug t to underlie

t e learning of associative c ains
Yxample of U‰-UR pairings

‰timulus/response

Food / salivation

Puff of air / Yye blink

Ylectric s ock / Pain reaction

C emot erapy / Nausea

Insulin injection / Lower blood sugar level

p 
    
‰emantic knowledge can be represented as
an associative network.

³Feature network´

Classification (discrimination)
and categorization (generalization)
are fundamental operations in
constructing an associative
³‰emantic network´ network.

Discrimination and generalization can be

investigated wit a conditioning paradigm
„   

Generalization Gradient
raining
Pair a 1200 Hz tone
wit t e U‰

esting
easure t e CR w en
tones wit different
frequencies are presented

  Laws of classical conditioning can be applied to
investigate sensory and perceptual sensitivity.

 

Present 1000 Hz tones a Present 1100 Hz tones
wit a U‰ (C‰ ) wit out a U‰ (C‰-)

 

Present target tones at frequencies between 1000 Hz and 1100 Hz
and measure t e CR.

%responses % responses
to C‰ to C‰

1000 Hz 1010 Hz 1000 Hz 1005 Hz

Yvidence for discrimination No evidence for discrimination
  ü
 


R


 R







Pavlov t oug t t at temporal contiguity is t e primary causal factor

underlying t e association. Alt oug temporal contiguity is an
important factor, it is not t e primary cause.

Green ± C‰ Amount of
Red - U‰ conditioning
CONINGYNCY  e primary causal factor for establis ing an
association between t e U‰ and C‰ is
 


Contrary to Pavlov, temporal

contiguity alone is not enoug to
establis an association between a
C‰ and a U‰. In order to be
effective, t e C‰ must be predictive
and informative.

 at is, t e C‰ s ould predict t e imminent arrival of t e U‰

 
an example

U‰ no U‰
C‰ 40% 10%
no C‰ 10% 40%
Positive Contingency:  e number trials wit C‰/U‰ pairing is greater t an
t e U‰ alone. Alt oug t e C‰ is not a perfect predictor, conditioning still
results.

U‰ no U‰
C‰ 10% 40%
no C‰ 40% 10%
Negative Contingency:  e number of trials wit C‰/U‰ pairings is less
t an t e number of trials wit t e U‰ alone.  e C‰ is non-informative
and no conditioning occurs.
 
  

 



 !"„ raining P ase 1 raining P ase 2 est P ase

Pair C‰1 wit U‰ Pair C‰1 and C‰2 est C‰2 alone
(establis association) wit U‰

tone wit s ock tone and lig t test lig t alone

wit s ock

 ere is no new or independent information provided by C‰2.

No conditioning occurs to C‰2 .because it provides no new
information about t e arrival of t e U‰.
 any ³laws´ of classical conditioning ave been discovered since Pavlov¶s initial
discoveries. A partial list is presented below.

?    . Conditioning to X is weaker w en training consists of XA trials alternated wit XB trials, eac
type reinforced alf of t e time; t an w en training consists of reinforced XA trials alternated wit XB nonreinforced
trials.


. Conditioning to C‰1-C‰2 following conditioning to C‰1 results in a weaker conditioning to C‰2 t an t at
attained wit C‰2-U‰ pairings.

#




#‰. Increasing t e U‰ increases responding to t e blocked C‰2.

#




#‰. Responding to C‰2 can be increased by decreasing t e U‰.


. Conditioning to C‰1-C‰2 results in a weaker conditioning to C‰2 t an t at attained wit C‰2-U‰
pairings.


 
. Conditioning to C‰1 following conditioning to C‰1-C‰2 results in a weaker conditioning to
C‰2 t an t at attained wit C‰2-U‰ pairings.

 
 . Reinforced C‰1-C‰2 presentations following independent reinforced C‰1 and C‰2
presentations, result in a decrement in t eir initial associative strengt .

‰
. Reinforced C‰1-C‰2 presentations following in ibitory conditioning of C‰1, increase C‰2
excitatory strengt compared wit t e case w en it is trained in t e absence of C‰1.

note: not intended for memorization

Compensatory Conditioning

Insulin injections (U‰) reduce t e level of blood sugar in

t e bloodstream (UR).  e sig t of t e syringe (C‰)
induces an increase in blood sugar levels (CR) as a

     

It is a special case w ere responses to t e U‰ and C‰ are

in t e opposite direction.

 e ³pre-game jitters´ often experienced by

at letes may result from increased blood sugar
levels, a conditioned response to t e anticipation
of intense p ysical activity.
Do t eories of classical conditioning apply to
complex uman be avior?

· conditioned emotional response

³little Albert¶s´ fear of rabbits
fear of dentists

· treatment of p obias
fear of snakes
fear of eig ts

· marketing
products are often paired Jo n B. Watson
wit an attractive model 1878-1958
Fat er of Be aviorism

· Yxperimental tec niques for investigating

t e neuroscience of learning and memory.
  

' | 

  
 

 
 R


 R
R 


Business

 e first midterm is onday, April 26

C apters 1,2,and 6 (Gleitman ext)

Note: t e section on t e ³Neural Basis for Learning´ (pp227-229)
will be included in t e ‰econd idterm.

Norton Reader C apters (listed by aut or/C apter)

James (1) Huff (2)
‰tanovic (2) Pinker (3)
arcus (3) Hauser (7)
Form F-288

Required
information
Question

Habituation and Classical Conditioning consider only

involuntary reflexes. How are voluntary responses learned?

 orndike proposed t e  $


If a response (be avior) is not rewarded,

it will be weakened
If a response (be avior) is rewarded,
it will be strengt ened

4 
 

R

  
 
R
  

R 



R
  

Ydward  orndike
1874-1949
  orndike puzzle-box (Operant Learning)

 orndike studied ow cats learned

to escape from a ³puzzle-box´ in
order to obtain a food reward. He
measured t e time required to
escape across many trials.

| au u
demonstrate

t at learning is gradual and
incremental.  ere is no
evidence t at t e cats ave a
sudden insig t into t e
problem¶s solution.

Click for video

ttp://Fis ing Bird
 ‰kinner developed t e operant c amber
to efficiently study operant be avior in a
controlled environment.

He was t e first to emp asize fundamental differences

between operant and classical conditioning.
B.F ‰kinner
1904-1990
· In  
, a response is elicited by t e C‰.
 e response as no effect on t e external environment.

· In  , a response is emitted voluntarily.  e response is

referred to as an
ua, in definition of a type of be avior t at brings about
some c ange in one¶s environment.
Click for video
ajor P enomena of Operant Conditioning

· Generalization and Discrimination

· ‰ aping

· Reinforcement sc edules

· Be avioral contrast

· Intrinsic motivation

· Contingency in operant conditioning

Generalization and Discrimination
An operant response is not elicited by an external stimulus
(t ere is no U‰), but an external stimulus can play a role as a
 u
a

 (e.g. serve as a signal for t e times
w en reinforcement is available).

$  one discrimination task

 

W en a 1000 Hz tone is on, food is available. (‰ )
W en a 1200 Hz tone is on, food is not available. (‰-)

 

‰lowly decrease t e frequency of ‰- until t e animal begins to respond.
or
‰lowly increase t e frequency of ‰ until t e animal stops responding.
 
  
Reward only appears to work if t e animal as some
 
  over w en t e reward is delivered.

If a dog is first given s ocks t at it cannot

control, it will take no action to escape s ocks
presented in a new situation w ere escape is
possible.  e p enomenon as been
described as  au 
   .

‰ome t eorists believe t at

mec anisms underlying learned
elplessness play a role in uman
depression.
‰
A desired be avior, even if complex, can be obtained
wit an operant training met od known as RR

   

Animal trainers are experts in met ods

of successive approximations

›
a

ua

a
  
  are
based on t e laws of operant conditioning.
? 
 ‰

 (‰c ool of Radical Be aviorism)

Be avior (i.e. operant responses) can be

YPY‰ of ‰CHYDULY‰
controlled by reinforcement sc edules.
% "  : Reinforcer is only
available only after some fixed time
after t e last reward

% ?  Reinforcer is presented

after a fixed number of responses.

& 
 "  : ‰ame as fixed

interval, except t at t e time
between available reinforcers is
varied.

& 
 ? :  e number of

responses needed for a reinforcer
varies.

A variable ratio, w ic produces t e ig est rates of response,

is used in gambling slot mac ines.
P enomenon referred to as °
a

ua 
ua  and u 


a

reveal limitations in a simple t eory of learning. Bot p enomenon point to
t e necessity of introducing a cognitive component in our explanations.

Be avioral Contrast
Operants depend on t e


of t e reinforcer.

Intrinsic otivation
Human activities can be sustained by u 


a

even in cases in w ic t e external reinforcement is in t e
opposite direction.
| | 
|
 

 
    
Ydward C. olman Rats in an experimental group are
1886-1959 allowed to explore a maze prior to
Cognitive Be aviorist rewarded trials.

Rats in a control group do not see

t e maze prior to training.

W en a food award is
introduced, rats in t e
experimental group learn to
run t e maze sooner t an rats
in t e control group.

 is implies t at t e rats
learned a 


a
of t e maze wit out any
external reward
olman proposed t at learning is not a c ange in be avior
as muc as t e acquisition of knowledge.

His findings violated  orndike¶s Law of Yffect.

An Olton 8-arm maze was
developed to study t e
aa


u of rats in
t e 1970¶s.

It is now used as a
standard testing device by
researc ers in many
subareas of Psyc ology,
including brain researc .

Olton 8-arm maze

Act-Outcome Representations (Animal memory)
Animals learn t at different acts lead to
different outcomes.  is implies t at t e
animal as an  ua u u a
 of
eac act-outcome pairing.

   
Learn to pus Rats continue
lever for food Add a mild toxin to to pus lever
t e water for food, but
Learn to pull quit pulling
c ain for water t e c ain
r #| 
Prepared Learning

Innate Perceptions

Observational Learning (Imitation)

Be avioral Constraints to Learning

4u au  | au
|
 
 

is an example of prepared learning

A s eep carcass is laced wit a c emical w ic induces temporary

nausea and sickness. W en a wolf eats t e carcass, it becomes sick
wit in a few ours. 
 

 occurs and t e wolf is less
likely to kill s eep in future encounters.

-  e time between t e C‰ and U‰ is

wo factors suggest t at taste extremely long.
aversion is a special case of U‰ ± feelings of sickness
learning. C‰ ± taste of s eep meat

- Learning generally occurs in a single trial

"  


@




 

    
Principle of Yquipotentiality:
·Any stimulus can serve as a C‰ and be paired wit any U‰
·Any operant can be paired wit any reinforcer.

Principle of Belongingness:
·Different animals ave different  R

  
Implies a biological perspective w ic emp asizes t e R
 

%   

Pigeons cannot be trained to peck a key to escape s ock
Pigeons cannot be trained to flap wings to obtain food
" 
Neural Basis for Learning
Neural plasticity -  e capacity of neurons to c ange t e way t ey
function as a consequence of experience.

 e 100 year quest for t e

$„?p 
t e nature of t e stored memory trace

Possibilities
·Long-term potentiation (LP) - increase in t e
responsiveness of neurons (synaptic level)

·Growt of dendritic spines on neurons