FOURTH EDITION

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION
 Water is controlled and regulated to serve a wide variety of purposes. Flood
mitigation, storm drainage, sewerage, and highway culvert design are applications of
water-resources engineering to the control of water so that it will not cause excessive
damage to property, inconvenience to the public, or loss of life.

Pollution threatens the utility of water for municipal and irrigation uses and
seriously despoils the aesthetic value of rivers—hence pollution control or water- quality
management has become an important phase of water-resources engineering.
Finally, the potential of nonstructural measures such as zoning to avoid flood
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damage and the preservation of natural beauty are factors the water-resources
engineer must consider. There has been a tendency toward specialization within these
applications in the water-resources field, but actually the problems encountered and
the solutions to these problems have much in common. Table 1.1 summarizes the
problems that may be encountered within the nine main functional fields of water-
resources engineering.
Semi Gravity Retaining Walls- it falls between gravity and cantilever types retaining
walls. They depend on their own weights plus the weight of some soil behind the wall to
provide stability and usually have some light reinforcement.
Cantilever Retaining Walls- or one of its variations is the most type of retaining walls. Such
walls are generally used for heights from 10ft to 25ft. When it is necessary to construct
retaining walls of greater heights than approximately 20ft to 25ft, the bending moments at
the junction of the stem and footing become so large that the designer will, from economic
necessity, have to consider other types of walls to handle the moments. This can be done
by introducing vertical cross walls on the front or back of the stem. If the cross walls are
behind the stem (i,e, inside the soil) and not visible, the retaining wall are called counterfort
walls. Should the cross walls be visible(on the toe side), the walls are called buttress walls.