Signalized Intersections

Saturation flow rate

The saturation flow rate is the maximum hourly volume that can pass through an
intersection, from a given lane or group of lanes, if that lane (or lanes) were
allocated constant green over the course of an hour. Saturation flow rate is
given by

S = 3600/h S= saturation flow

h = saturation heafway in s/veh
3600= number of seconds per hour
Research has found that a typical maximum saturation flow rate of 1900
passenger cars per hour per lane (pc/h/ln) is possible at signalized intersections,
and
this is referred to as the base saturation flow rate. This corresponds to a saturation
headway of about 1.9 seconds. Just as in the analysis of uninterrupted flow, a
number
of roadway and traffic factors can affect the maximum flow rate through an
intersection. These factors include lane widths; grades; curbside parking
maneuvers;
the distribution of traffic among multiple approach lanes; the level of roadside
development; bus stops; and the influence of pedestrians, bicycles, and heavy
vehicles (since they occupy more roadway space and have poorer
acceleration/deceleration capabilities). Additionally, lanes that allow left or right
turns usually have lower saturation flow rates because drivers reduce speed to
make a
turning maneuver (especially heavy vehicles, with their increased turning radii).
Lost Time
Due to the traffic signal’s function of continuously alternating the right-of-way
between conflicting movements, traffic streams are continuously started and
stopped.
Every time this happens, a portion of the cycle length is not being completely
utilized, which translates to lost time (time that is not effectively serving any
movement of traffic). Total lost time is a combination of start-up and clearance lost
times. Start-up lost times occur because when a signal indication turns from red to
green, drivers in the queue do not instantly start moving at the saturation flow rate;
there is an initial lag due to drivers reacting to the change of signal indication. This
start-up delay results in a portion of the green time for that movement not being
completely utilized. This start-up lost time has a typical value of around 2 seconds.
The stopping of a traffic movement also results in lost time. When the signal
indication turns from green to yellow, the latter portion of time during the yellow
interval is generally not utilized by traffic. Additionally, if there is an all-red interval,
this time period is generally not utilized by traffic. These periods of time during the
change and clearance intervals that are not effectively used by traffic are referred
to
as clearance lost time. Typically, the last second of the yellow interval and the entire
all-red interval are included in the estimate of clearance lost time. However, for
intersections with significant red-light running, the clearance lost time may be
negligible.
Start-up and clearance lost times are summed to arrive at a total lost time for the
phase, given as tL = tsl + tcl
 tL = total lost time for a movement during a cycle in seconds,
 tsl = start-up lost time in seconds, and
 tcl = clearance lost time in seconds.
 Effective Green and Red Times
For analysis purposes, the time during a cycle that is effectively (or not effectively)
utilized by traffic must be used rather than the time for which green, yellow, and red
signal indications are actually displayed, because they are most likely different. This
results in two measures of interest: the effective green time and the effective red time.
The effective green time is the time during which a traffic movement is effectively
utilizing the intersection. The effective green time for a given movement or phase is
calculated as
g = G + Y + AR − tL

 g = effective green time for a traffic movement in seconds,

 G = displayed green time for a traffic movement in seconds,
 Y = displayed yellow time for a traffic movement in seconds,
 AR = displayed all-red time in seconds, and
 tL = total lost time for a movement during a cycle in seconds.
The effective red time is the time during which a traffic movement is not
effectively utilizing the intersection. The effective red time for a given
movement or
phase is calculated as
r = R + tL

 r = effective red time for a traffic movement in seconds,

 R = displayed red time for a traffic movement in seconds, and
 tL = total lost time for a movement during a cycle in seconds.
r=C−g

 C = cycle length in seconds,

 Other terms are as defined previously.
Capacity
Because movements on an intersection approach do not receive a constant
green
indication (as assumed in the definition for saturation flow rate), another measure
must be defined that accounts for the hourly volume that can be accommodated
on an
intersection approach given that the approach will receive less than 100% green
time.
This measure is capacity and is given by
c = s × g/C

 c = capacity (the maximum hourly volume that can pass through an

intersection from a
 lane or group of lanes under prevailing roadway, traffic, and control conditions)
in veh/h,
 s = saturation flow rate in veh/h, and
 g/C = ratio of effective green time to cycle length.
LEFT-TURN TREATMENTS AT
INTERSECTIONS
 LEFT-TURN TREATMENTS
 The left-turn maneuver is one of the more complex driving challenges at high-
volume intersections. Drivers turning left must find a gap in opposing traffic and
check for pedesthans, bicycles, and other traffic in the intersection all under a
dynamic situation of changing traffic patterns. The left-turning vehicles can, at
the same time, have a major impact on the intersection traffic operations.
Depending on the intersection features provided for turning traffic, the left-turn
maneuver can cause major delays to other traffic, be a source of conflict with
other maneuvers, and require specific analysis, design consideration, and
traffic control to avoid operational and safety problems.
The need to handle large volumes of vehicles at intersections with the
multitude of conflicts between various vehicle maneuvers has resulted
in several principles of channelization that are generally considered for
intersection design. The treatment of left turns at intersections is a
direct consideration of several of those principles

 Undesirable movements should  High-priority traffic movements

be discouraged or prohibited—In
some cases; it may be desirable
to install islands or barriers that
prohibit left turns at intersections
or limit the number of turns.
 Desirable vehicular paths should
be clearly defined, safe vehicle
speeds encouraged, and points
of conflict separated— The design
of a separate left-turn lane meets
these principles.
and desired traffic control
scheme should be facilitated,
stopped or slow vehicles removed
from high-speed traffic streams—
The separate left-turn lane
relocates left-turning traffic and
provides an opportunity to control
left turns.
 Safe refuge provided for
pedestrians and other nonmotor
vehicle users—The design of a
median island and left-turn lane
can provide a refuge for
nonmotorized users in the middle
of a wide intersection.
LEFT-TURN TREATMENTS

 Drivers normally expect to have left-turn lanes provided at major intersections,

and many jurisdictions that were surveyed for this Synthesis indicate it is normal
practice to construct left-turn lanes with intersection improvements because
that is what the public expects. Left turn treatments range from the prohibition of
such movements to specially designed geometric treatments including shared
lanes, left-turn lanes in the median area of a divided highway, and lanes
separated by a physical barrier. Traffic controls include lane markings and
traffic signals. Other considerations are the number and types of vehicles,
pedestrian interface, and safety issues such as visibility
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
 Function and Setting

 Traffic Studies

 Roadway Geometrics
Rural roadways usually have
lower traffic volumes so left
turns have fewer conflicts
with other vehicles. An
analysis by Hoban ( indicates
that there is relatively no
delay on rural two-lane
highways below 400 vehicles
per hour (vph) in both
directions but delay increases
significantly for volumes
above 1,200 vph (Figure ).
However, the rural setting
may have higher vehicle
operating speeds, which
requires a longer traffic gap
for left turns and which may
create greater accident
potential because of speed
differentials with a stopped
left-turn vehicle. Therefore,
the need for a left-turn lane in
rural areas should be based
more on safety
considerations than on traffic
volumes.
Types of left turn treatment

 Prohibition
The prohibition of the left-turn maneuver is a possible treatment if left-turn
volumes are low, if the left-turn vehicle can be diverted to other routes, and if
other treatments are not cost-effective. The prohibition can be implemented
with regulatory traffic control signs but a traffic island or median channelization
is usually a more effective restriction.
 Types of left turn treatment
 Geometric Features
The basic two-lane, two-way roadway
makes no provision for left turns,
resulting in left turns being made from
the through traffic lane, which must also
accommodate all other maneuvers.
Hence, this type is usually described as
a shared lane, because all intersection
maneuvers must share the same lane. A
shared lane concept also exists
between the left-turn and through
traffic lanes for multiple lane roadways
where a separate turn lane is not
provided for the left-turn maneuver.
Shared lane operations are illustrated in
Figure
 Key controls in geometric highway design are the physical characteristics and the
proportions of vehicles of various sizes using the roadway. Different vehicles have
different needs that affect their ability to navigate a left-turn lane. Therefore, it is
necessary to select a vehicle, called a design vehicle, with weight, dimensions, and
operating characteristics that arerepresentative of the vehicles likely to most commonly
use the left-turn lane.

AASHTO(American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.) (5) has

established four classes of design vehicles
 Passenger cars,
 Buses,
 Trucks,
 Recreational vehicles.
Approach Sight Triangles

 Each quadrant of an intersection should contain a triangular area free of

obstructions that might block an approaching driver’s view of potentially
conflicting vehicles. The length of the legs of this triangular area, along both
intersecting roadways, should be such that the drivers can see any
potentially conflicting vehicles in sufficient time to slow or stop before
colliding within the intersection. Exhibit 9-50A shows typical clear sight
triangles to the left and to the right for a vehicle approaching an
uncontrolled or yield-controlled intersection.
Left Turn From the Minor Road

 Departure sight triangles for traffic approaching from either the right or the
left, like those shown in Exhibit 9-50B, should be provided for left turns from
the minor road onto the major road for all stop-controlled approaches. The
length of the leg of the departure sight triangle along the major road in
both directions is the recommended intersection sight distance for Case B
The vertex (decision point) of the departure sight triangle on the minor road should be 4.4 m
[14.4 ft] from the edge of the major-road traveled way. This represents the typical position of
the minor-road driver’s eye when a vehicle is stopped relatively close to the major road.
Field observations of vehicle stopping positions found that, where necessary, drivers will stop
with the front of their vehicle 2.0 m [6.5 ft] or less from the edge of the major-road traveled
way. Measurements of passenger cars indicate that the distance from the front of the
vehicle to the driver’s eye for the current U.S. passenger car population is nearly always 2.4
m [8 ft] or less (10). Where practical, it is desirable to increase the distance from the edge of
the major-road traveled way to the vertex of the clear sight triangle from 4.4 m to 5.4 m
[14.4 to 17.8 ft]. This increase allows 3.0 m [10 ft] from the edge of the major-road traveled
way to the front of the stopped vehicle, providing a larger sight triangle. The length of the
sight triangle along the minor road (distance a in Exhibit 9-50B) is the sum of the distance
from the major road plus 1/2 lane width for vehicles approaching from the left, or 1-1/2 lane
width for vehicles approaching from the right.