Carrier Action: Motion, Recombination

and Generation.

What happens after we figure out

how many electrons and holes are
in the semiconductor?

1
 Carrier Motion I
Described by 2 concepts:
• Conductivity: s
(or resistivity: r = 1/s)
• Mobility: m
Zero Field movement:
Electrons are
Random – over all e-
scattered by
Thermal – Energy impurities,
Distribution. defects etc.
Motion

What happens when you apply a force? 2

 Carrier Motion II
 
Apply a force: F = qE = qEx xˆ
Electrons accelerate:
-n0qEx=dpx/dt {from F=ma=d(mv)/dt}
Electrons decelerate too.
• Approximated as a viscous damping force
(much like wind on your hand when driving)
dpx = -px dt/t {dt = time since last “randomizing
collision” and t = mean free time between
randomizing collisions.}
Net result: deceration = dpx/dt = -px/t
3
 Carrier Motion III
Acceleration=Deceleration in steady state.
• dpx/dt(accel) + dpx/dt(decel) = 0
• -n0qEx - px/t = 0.
Algebra:
• px/n0 = -qtEx = <px>
• But
qt

• <px> = mn*<vx> Therefore: xv =  E   mn Ex
* x mn
qt qt
mn = , mp =
mn* m*p

4
 Currents
“Current density” (J) is just the amount of
charge passing through a unit area per unit
time.
Jx = (-q)(n0)<vx> in C/(s m2) or A/m2
= +(qn0mn)Ex for e-’s acting alone.
= sn Ex (defining e- conductivity)
If both electrons and holes are present:
   
J = q(no mn  po m p ) E = sE = E
r

5
 Current, Resistance
How do we find:
• current (I)? We integrate J.
I=  J dydz
y = 0 to w
z = 0 to t
x
• resistance (R)? t L
L V
r ( x ) dx rL
R =  w( x ) t ( x ) = wt
= s1 wtL w

• Provided r, w, t are all

constants along the x-axis.
6
 Mobility changes …
Although it is far too simplistic we use:
t is the “mean free time.”
mn = qt/mn* mn* is the “effective mass.”
 t depends upon: (depends on material)

• # of scatter centers (impurities, defects etc.)

More doping => lower mobility (see Fig. in books)
More defects (worse crystal) => smaller mobility too.
• The lattice temperature (vibrations)
Increased temp => more lattice movement => more
scattering => m
smaller t and smaller m.
Increasing
Doping 7
 Mobility Changes II
Mobility is also a function of the electric field
strength (Ex) when Ex becomes large. (This leads
to an effect called “velocity saturation.”)
<vx> Here m is constant (low fields). Note constant m => linear plot.
Vsat
107 cm/s
At ~107 cm/s, the carrier KE becomes
106 cm/s the same order of magnitude as kBT.
Therefore: added energy tends to warm
up the lattice rather than speed up the
105 cm/s carrier from here on out. The velocity
becomes constant, it “saturates.”
Ex (V/cm)
102 103 104 105 106

8
 What does Ex do to our Energy Band Diagram?

Drift currents depend upon the electric

field. What does an electric field do to our
energy band diagrams?
It “bends” them or causes slope in EC, EV
and Ei. We can show this. E
electron
• Note:
Eelectron = Total E e-
EC
 = PE + KE Eg
How much is PE vs. KE??? EV
h+

9
 Energy Band Diagrams in electric fields
EC is the lower edge for potential energy (the
energy required to break an electron out of a
bonding state.)
Everything above EC is KE then.
PE always has to have a
Eelectron
reference! We’ll choose e-
KE
one arbitrarily for the
EC = PE
moment. (EREF = Constant) Eg
EV = PE
Then PE = EC-EREF PE
KE
h+
We also know: PE=-qV
EREF
10
 Energy Band Diagrams in electric fields II
Electric
fields and voltages are related by:
E = -V (or in 1-D E=-dV/dx)
• So: PE = EC-EREF = -qV or V = -(EC-EREF)/q
• Ex = -dV/dx = -d/dx{-(EC-EREF)/q} or
Ex = +(1/q) dEC/dx
 1 dEC
E = q EC or Ex = q dx
1

 1 dEV
E = q EV or Ex = q dx
1

 1 dEi
E = q Ei or Ex = q dx
1

11
 Energy Band Diagrams in electric fields III
The Electric Field always points into the
rise in the Conduction Band, EC.
Eelectron

Ex
EC
Ei
Eg EV

EREF

Whatabout the Fermi level? What

happens to it due to the Electric Field?
12
 Another Fermi-Level Definition
The Fermi level is a measure of the
average energy or “electro-chemical
potential energy” of the particles in the
semiconductor. THEREFORE:
The FERMI ENERGY has to be a constant
value at equilibrium. It can not have any
slope (gradients) or discontinuities at all.

The Fermi level is our real-life EREF!

13
 Let’s examine this constant EF
 Note: If current flows => it is + V -

not equilibrium and EF must be

changing. Semiconductor
 In this picture, we have no Ex
Eelectron
connections. Therefore I=0 and
it is still equilibrium! Ex EC
 Brings us to a good question: Ei
• If electrons and holes are moved EF
by Ex, how can there be NO EV
CURRENT here??? Won’t Ex
move the electrons => current?
 The answer lies in the concept
of “Diffusion”. Next… Looks Looks
N-type P-type
14
 Diffusion I
Examples:
• Perfume,
• Heater in the corner (neglecting convection),
• blue dye in the toilet bowl.
What causes the motion of these particles?
• Random thermal motion coupled with a density
gradient. ( Slope in concentration.)

15
 Green dye in a fishbowl …
 If you placed green dye in a fishbowl, right in the center,
then let it diffuse, you would see it spread out in time until
it was evenly spread throughout the whole bowl. This
can be modeled using the simple-minded motion
described in the figure below. L-bar is the “mean
(average) free path between collisions” and t the mean
free time. Each time a particle collides, it’s new direction
is randomly determined. Consequently, half continue
going forward and half go backwards.

Dye Concentration 32

16 16

8 8 8 8
4 4 8 8 4 4
x
l -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 16
 Diffusion II
Over a large scale, this would look more
like:
t=0

t1
Let’s look more in depth
t2 at this section of the
curve.
t3

tequilibrium

17
 Diffusion III
 Whatkind of a particle movement does Random Thermal
motion (and a concentration gradient) cause?
n(x)
nb0 It causes net motion from
nb1 large concentration regions
to small concentration
nb2 regions.

Bin Bin Bin

(0) (1) (2) Line with slope:
nb 2  nb1
Half of
l
 dn
dx
e- go left x0
half go
right.
x-axis
x0  l x0 x0  l
18
 Diffusion IV
 Net number of electrons crossing x0 is:
• Number going right: 0.5*nb1*ℓ*A
• Minus Number going left: 0.5*nb2*ℓ*A
• Net is = 0.5*ℓ*A*(nb1-nb2)
• (note ℓ*A=volume of a bin.)
 Flux= # of particles crossing a plane per unit time and
unit area. Symbol is: f

f = 0.5*ℓ*A*(nb1-nb2) (t = mean free time.)

t*A
Or f = 0.5*ℓ (nb1-nb2)
t

19
 Diffusion V
 Using the fact that slope (dn/dx) = -(nb1-nb2)/ℓ gives:
f = - 0.5*ℓ2 dn or f = -Dn*dn/dx (electrons)
t dx
or f = -Dp*dp/dx (holes)

 Now: When charges move we get current. Consequently,

the current density is directly related to the particle flux.
The equations are:
• (electrons) (holes)
J n = qfn J p =  qf p

=  qDn dn
dx
(1  D) = qD p dx
dp
(1  D)
=  qDnn (3  D) = qD pp (3  D)
20
 Diffusion VI
Let’s look at an example:
n(x) dn/dx = 0 here

J(x)

The electrons are diffusing

out of the center and
toward the edges.
21
 Currents round-up
Sonow we know that our total currents
have 2 components:
• DRIFT – due to any electric field we apply
• DIFFUSION – due to any (dp/dx, dn/dx) we
apply and thermal motion.
 
J n = qnmn E  qDnn
Drift Diffusion J total = J p  J n
 
J p = qpm p E  qD pp

22
 Answering that old question
 How can we have an electric + V -

Field and still have no current?

Semiconductor
(Still have J = 0?)
Ex
Eelectron
Diffusionmust
Ex EC
balance Drift!
Example: Ei
  EF
J p = qpm p E  qD pp = 0 EV

or
 Dp
E= 1 dp
m p p dx
Looks Looks
N-type P-type
23
 Einstein Relationship
We next remember: p=niexp((Ei-EF)/kBT)
Plugging this into our equation for the electric
field and noting that dEF/dx = 0 … we get
 The Einstein Relationships.
Dp k BT Dn k BT
mp
= q
and mn
= q

These are very useful. You will never find a table

for both Dp and mp as a result of these. Once you
have m, you have D too, by this relationship.

24
 A sanity check
Pretend we have: What will be the fluxes
and currents?

x
Holes Mechanism Electrons
Ex
Diffusion
Flux (f)
Current Density (J)
n(x)
Drift
Flux (f)
p(x) Current Density (J)

25
 Recombination – Generation I
Generation (G): How e- The concepts are
and h+ are produced or visually seen in the
created. energy band diagram
Recombination (R): below.
How e- and h+ are Ee
destroyed or removed G R
EC

At equilibrium: r = g and hv hv

EV
since the generation
rate is set by the x
temperature, we write it
as: r = gthermal
26
 Recombination – Generation II
Recombination must
depend upon
• the # of electrons: no
• the # of holes: po
(If no e- or h+, nothing can
recombine!) When the
From the chemical reaction temperature is
• e- + h+ → Nothing
raised
• gthermal increases
we can know that
Therefore
• r = αrnopo = αrni2 = gthermal
• ni must increase
The recombination too!
“rate coefficient” 27
 Recombination – Generation III

A variety of recombination mechanisms exist:

Ee Direct, Band to Band
Auger
G R
EC Ee

hv hv G R
EV EC
x
Ee EV
Indirect via R-G centers
G R x
EC
R-G Center Energy Level

EV
x 28
 GaAs is a
Direct Eg – The
Band Gap Band Gap
Semiconductor Energy
Direct
recombination
of electrons
with holes
occurs. The
electrons fall
from the bottom
of the CB to the
VB by giving
off a photon!

GaAs band structure produced by J. R. Chelikowsky and M. L. Cohen, Phys. Rev. B 14, 556 (1976)
using an empirical Pseudo-potential method see also: Cohen and Bergstrasser, Phys. Rev. 141, 789 (1966). 29
 GaAs band structure produced by W. R. Frensley, Professor of EE @ UTD
using an empirical Pseudo-potential method see also: Cohen and Bergstrasser, Phys. Rev. 141, 789 (1966). 30
 Si is an
Eg – The
Indirect
Band Gap
Band Gap
Energy
Semiconductor

Only indirect
recombination
of electrons
with holes
occurs. The
electrons fall
from the bottom
of the CB into
an R-G center
and from the
R-G center to the
VB. No photon!
Silicon band structure produced by J. R. Chelikowsky and M. L. Cohen, Phys. Rev. B 14, 556 (1976)
using an empirical Pseudo-potential method see also: Cohen and Bergstrasser, Phys. Rev. 141, 789 (1966). 31
 Silicon band structure produced by W. R. Frensley, Professor of EE @ UTD
using an empirical Pseudo-potential method see also: Cohen and Bergstrasser, Phys. Rev. 141, 789 (1966). 32