Body Fluids and their Circulation

Class 1
 Body Fluids
• 60 % of our weight is Water
• Women have less water than Men and they
have more fat
• Percentage of fat decreases the percentage of
water
• Two types of fluids
– Intracellular fluid
– Extracellular fluid
 Intracellular fluid
• Mixture of different constituents
• Composition of intracellular fluid is similar in
almost all organisms
• Potassium , phosphate ions and proteins are
present
• Magnesium and sulphate ions are also present
• Small quantity of Sodium and chloride ions
• No calcium ions (almost )
 Extracellular fluid
• Interstitial fluid – Tissue fluid
• Blood plasma
• Lymph plasma
• Serous fluids – Pericardial, Intrapleural and
peritoneal fluid
• Digestive fluids
• Fluid in urinary tract
• Transcellular fluids – CSF, Intraocular, Synovial
fluids(Joints)
 Constituents of Extracellular fluid
• Sodium ions, Chloride ions
• Bicarbonate ions
• Small quantity of Ca, Mg, K, PO4 and organic
acids
 Blood
• Mobile connective tissue
• Composed of plasma and corpuscles
• Softest tissue
• 30-35% if ECF is blood
• 5.5 litres of blood is found in a 70 Kg person
• Alkaline fluid – 7.4pH
 Plasma
• Alkaline in nature
• Comprises 55% of blood
• Pale yellow transparent fluid
• Made up of 90-92% water and 8% solids
• Plasma without clotting factors - Serum
 Composition
• Water
• Minerals – Na, Ca,Mg, HCO3, Cl
• Nutrients – glucose, aminoacids, Lipids
• Proteins – 6-8% of plasma
• Immunoglobulins (Antibodies)
• Excretory substances – urea, uric acid creatine, creatinine
• Dissolved gases
• Anticoagulant – Heparin
• Hormones
• Vitamins and enzymes
• Factors for clotting blood – Fibrinogen and Prothrombin
 Functions
• Prevention of blood loss
• Retention of fluid in blood – globulin and
albumins retain water
• Body immunity
• Maintenance of pH
• Transport
• Distribution of heat
 Blood corpuscles
• Constitute about 45% of blood
• Three types
– Erythrocytes
– Leucocytes
– Thrombocytes
 Erythrocytes – RBC’s
• Total count – 4.5 million cells per mm of blood
• Less amount of RBC – Anaemia
• Reasons: Loss of blood , destruction of RBC
• Life time – 120 days

• More amount is due to over exercise and living in hilly

areas
• Abnormal rise in RBC – Polycythemia
• Decrease in RBC – erythrocytopenia
• Erythropoietin – Hormone produced to stimulate RBC
production in bone marrow
 Shape, size & colour
• E nucleated
• Biconcave and circular
• Biconcave is advantageous – surface area

• Size : 7-8 micrometer diameter, 1-2 micrometer

thick

• Colour: yellowish alone and red in group

• Haemoglobin gives the colour
 Structure
• Mature RBC do not have cell organelles
• Cytoplasm is filled with haemoglobin
• Anaerobic respiration happens in blood cells
• Haemoglobin – Made up of haeme part and
globin part
– Haeme – Iron porphyrrin complex
– Globin – proteinaceous
• An RBC has 280 Haemoglobin molecules
• 100 ml of blood should contain 12-16 g of
haemoglobin
 Formation - Erythropoiesis
• Nucleated RBC – produced in Yolk sac
• RBC is produced by Liver and Spleen in embryo
stages
• After birth – Bone marrow produces RBC
• Bone marrow consists of Haemocystoblasts that
produces RBC’s
• Vit B12 and folic acid stimulate maturation of RBC
• Excess RBC – stored in spleen ( grave yard of RBC)
 Functions
• Transport of O2
• Transport of CO2
• Maintenance of pH: Hb is a good acid base
buffer
 Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate
• Erythrocyte with anticoagulant like oxalate allows
the RBC to settle down
• The rate at which this happens is called as ESR
• Useful for diagnosing diseases including TB
• ESR in men – 0-5mm in first hour
• ESR in women – 0.7mm in first hour
• Rouleaux – RBC’s aggregate one top of another
due to the act of Fibrinogen which aggregates
RBC’s
 Leucocytes - WBC
• Do not have Haemoglobin
• 6000 – 8000 cells per microlitre
• Ratio of RBC to WBC – 1:700
• Leucocytosis – Increase in WBC (Shows acute
infection)
• Leukemia – WBC with Malignancy (Blood
cancer)
• Leukopenia – Fall in WBC count
 Shape Size and Colour
• Round or irregular in shape
• Changes shape and shows amoeboid
movement
• Diapedesis – Movement of WBC into tissues
from blood capillaries by squeezing in.
• Larger than RBC – 12 – 20 micrometer
• WBC are Colourless
 Structure
• Contains Cell membrane, Nucleus, Cytoplasm,
Mitochondria, Golgi apparatus etc
• Two main types
– Agranulocytes
• Lymphocytes
• Monocytes
– Granulocytes
• Eosinophils
• Basophils
• Neutrophils
 Agranulocytes
• Lymphocytes (20 -25%)
– Smaller in size
– Large nucleus and less cytoplasm
– Produces Antibodies
– Heal injuries
– Two types – T lymphocyte and B lymphocyte
• Monocytes(2-10%)
– Largest of all types
– Amoeboid in shape, Nucleus is bean shaped
– Motile and Phagocytic
 Granulocytes
• Based on staining property divided into three
types
• Eosinophills (2-3%)
– Nucleus is two lobed
– Have coarse granules
– Take acid stain – eosin
– Increases in allergic condition
– Dissolves clot
– Activity similar to lysosomes
 Granulocytes
• Basophills(1%)
– Nucleus is three lobed
– Less coarse granules
– Takes basic stain – Methylene blue
– Releases Serotonin, Histamin and Arin
• Neutrophils(60-65%)
– Nucleus is multilobed
– Most numerous
– Barr body – a small stalk attached to nucleus is found
– Phagocytic
 Leucopoeisis
• Formation of Leukocytes
• Granulocytes and Monocytes form in Bone
marrow
• Lymphocytes =-produced in Lymph nodes –
spleen, bone marrow, tonsils, Peyer’s patches

• WBC live for 4-5 hours(granulocytes)

• Monocytes -20 hours
• Lymphocytes – few days to months or years
depending on infection
 Thrombocytes - Platelets
• Fewer than RBC more than WBC
• Increase – Thrombocytosis
• Decrease – Thrombopenia
• They are present as cell fragments
• Rounded like oval discs
• 2-3 Micrometer
• Colourless
• Flat non nucleated and has fewer cell organelles
 Platelets
• Formed from megakaryocytes – bigger bones
of bone marrow
• Thrombopoiesis – formation
• Lives about a week
• Releases platelet factors which help in clotting
• Eg thromboplastin
 Blood Groups
• There are more than 30 antigens on the surface
of the blood cells
• In blood transfer the blood grouping should be
matched
• If not it will result in agglutination
• Agglutination: The recipient's blood will produce
antibodies against the antigen
• Two type of blood groups
– ABO blood group
– Rh blood group
 ABO blood groups
• Karl Landsteiner reported for the ABO blood group
• A, B, O were found by Lansteiner
• AB – de Castello and Steini
• Three alleles of gene I (Isoagglutinogen) produce
protein A or protein B or no protein.
• People with IA gene produce Antigen A, IB produce
antigen B and with O group produce no protein , IAIB
will produce both antigen A and B
• Universal Donor – O
• Universal acceptor - AB
 Rh Blood group
• Based on Protein named rhesus antigen present
on RBC
• Discovered by Landsteiner and Wiener in Rhesus
monkey
• 85 – 90% of them have the rhesus antigen so they
are Rh +ve others who dont have this are Rh –ve
• Formation of the blood is controlled by a
dominant gene R
• Both the phenotypes are normal
• Problems arise during pregnancy and transfusion
 Incompatibility during Blood
transfusion
• First transfusion of Rh + blood to a Rh – will
not cause any harm because the antibodies
would be formed in the Rh- individual
• Second transfusion of Rh + to Rh- will cause
disruption of RBC of the donor
 Incompatibility during pregnancy
• If Father is Rh + and Mother is Rh – then the foetus in the
uterus will be affected
• The Rh- blood from mother will react with Rh+ blood in the
child and forms antibodies during the first pregnancy
• The second child will get affected because of the
haemolytic disease of the newborn – erythroblastosis
foetalis
• New born will survive but will be severely anaemic
• Prevention – Rh- mothers can be injected with anti Rh-
antibody during all pregnancy
• Marriage between Rh- woman and Rh+ Man should be
avoided.
 Coagulation of blood
• Stopping of bleeding during injury – blood
clotting or blood coagulation
• Step 1
– Blood platelets disintegrate at site of injury
– Platelet factor3 (A phospholipid)is released by
platelets
– Injured tissue produces a lipoprotein facto
thromboplastin
– Prothrombin + platelet factor in presence of Ca++ will
form an enzyme prothrombinase in plasma
 Second step
• Prothrombinase inactivates heparin in the
presence of Ca++ ion
• Prothrombinase converts Prothrombin into
Thrombin
 Third Step
• Thrombin acts as an enzyme and brings about
depolymerisation of fibrinogen into monomers
• Thrombin repolymerises later the monomers into fibrin
– long insoluble fibre like polymers called fibrin
• The fibrin forms a mesh like structure and forms the
clot and traps blood corpuscles
• Clot contracts soon after and serum oozes out
• Serum = plasma – (Fibrinogen + blood corpuscles)
• Vitamin K is necessary for the synthesis of Prothrombin
in liver
 Bleeding / clotting time
• Bleeding lasts for 3-6 minutes depending on
the depth of the wound
• Clotting happens in 3-8 minutes in a test tube
 Functions of the Blood
• Transports Food, Respiratory gases,
Hormones, Excretory matter, Heat
• Defence mechanism
• Temperature regulation
• Water balance
• Maintains pH
• Prevention of blood loss
• Helps in healing
 Lymph
• Connective tissue
• Comprises of Lymph plasma and Lymph
corpuscles
 Lymph plasma
• Similar to blood plasma
• Fewer proteins
• Less calcium, Phosphorus
• High glucose content
• Globulin proteins
 Lymph corpuscles
• Amoeboid cells
• Leucocytes
• Erythrocytes and Thrombocytes are absent
 Lymphoid organs
• Organs that secrete lymph are lymphoid
organs
• Lymph nodes
• Tonsils
• Thymus gland
• Spleen( largest)
• Peyer’s patches
 Functions
• Middle man in Oxygen and food transport to
body cell and wastes to the veins
• Keeps body cells moist
• Lymph carries lymphocytes into the blood
• Destroys foreign particles
• Absorbs fats and FSVs through lacteals
• Brings plasma proteins and hormones into the
blood
• Lymph maintains volume of the blood
Human Circulatory System
 Components
• Blood Vascular system – Heart, Blood, Blood
vessels
• Lymphatic System – Lymph, Lymph capillaries,
Lymph vessels, Lymph nodes, Lymph Ducts

• Both are closed

• William Harvey Discovered both
 Heart
• Location: Between lungs in the thoracic cavity
• Size – 12 cm dia, 280 -340 g(males), 230-280 g
(Females)
• Complete growth – 17 – 20 years
• Conical or pyramidal in shape
• Broad part – Base
• Narrow part – Apex
• Apex is directed towards left
 Protective layers
• 2 layers
• Outer – Parietal pericardium
• Inner – Visceral pericardium
• In between pericardial cavity is filled with
Pericardial fluid

• Role – Protects from mechanical shocks and

injuries, allows free movement
 External Structures
• Four chambered
• 2 atria and 2 ventricles
 Grooves
• Interatrial sulcus (groove) – divides left and
right atrium
• Atrioventriculur sulcus – Divides atrium and
ventricle
• Coronary sulcus, Interventricular sulcus - have
coronary arteries through which heart
receives blood
 Atria
• Quadrangular chamber
• Thin walled
• Two in number
• Each atrium has an appendage called auricle
• Auricle increases the surface area
• Right atrium is connected with
– Superior venacava (Upper part blood)
– Inferior vena cava (Lower part blood)
– Coronary sinus (Blood from heart)
• Left atrium
– Less voluminous
– Appendage Left auricle
– Cuboidal
– Receives blood from pulmonary veins
 Ventricles
• Thick walled
• Two in number
• Left ventricle is narrower and thicker( 3 times)
 Pulmonary trunk and Aorta
• Pulmonary trunk:
– Receives blood from right atrium
– Divides into right and left pulmonary artery
– Carries deoxygenated blood
• Aorta
– Arises from left ventricle
– Divided into
• Ascending aorta – Left and Right coronary artery arise
• arch of aorta – brachiocephalic artery, Left common carotid
artery, left subclavian artery
• descending aorta Divided into abdominal and thoracic parts
 Contd
• Ligamentum arteriosum – Connects
pulmonary trunk with aorta
• Ductus arteriosus – Name of ligamentum
arteriosum in embryo
 Internal structure - Atria
• Atria seperated by interatrial septum
• Right atrium receives blood from 3 veins
• Opening of inferior venacava – guarded by
Eustachian valve
• Opening of coronary sinus – Thebasian valve
• Fossa ovalis – oval depression in the septum
which marks the position of the foramen ovale in
the foetus
• Left Atrium – has four openings of pulmonary
veins
 Valves
• Bicuspid valve/ Mitral valve
– Atrioventricular opening in left side
• Tricuspid valve
– Right atrioventricular opening
 Ventricles
• Chordae tendinae connects the atrioventricular
valves with papillary muscles of the ventricles
• Chordae tendinae prevents from valves collapsing
• Chordae tendinae is also attached to the
muscular ridges (Columnae carnae)on walls of
ventricles
• Columnae carnae divides the walls of the
ventricles as fissures
 Semilunar valves
• Present in the base of aorta and pulmonary
trunk
• Three half moon valve pockets
• Aortic semilunar valve
• Pulmonary semilunar valve
 Histology
• Outer most – Visceral pericardium
• Middle – Myo cardium
• Innermost - endothelium
 Heart beat
• Rythmic contraction and relaxation of heart
• Contraction – Systole
• Relaxation – Diastole
• Healthy heart – 72 beats per minute
• Pumps 5 litres of blood perminute in resting stage
• Two types
– Neurogenic – initiated by nerve ganglion ( Annelids
and anthropods)
– Myogenic – initiated by the modified muscles in the
heart ( Vertabrates)
 Myogenic heartbeat
• Originates in a muscle
• Regulated by nerves
• Originates in the SA node ( Sinoatrial Node)
• SA node is present in the right atrium near
superior venacava
• SA node is a neuromuscular tissue
• SA node is the pace maker – When defective it
is replaced by an artificial pace maker
 Conduction of heart beat
• AV(Atrioventricular) node conducts the heartbeat
• AV node is a neuromuscular tissue which is located in
the wall of Right atrium in the bottom part
• A group of fibres called Bundle of His originates in the
AV node
• Bundle of His divides into two branches – one into each
ventricle
• Bundle of His divide into network of fine fibres called
as the Purkinje fibres.
• They convey the impulse of contraction from AV node
to myocardium of ventricles
 Regulation of Heart Beat
• Regulated by two mechanisms
• Neural
– Medulla oblongata has the cardiac centre
– It is formed of Accelerators and inhibitors
– Accelerator – sympathetic nerves
– Inhibitor – Vagus nerve (Parasympathetic)
– Impulses from Aorta – Decrease
– Impulses from the Venacava – Increase heart rate
 Hormonal regulation
• Adrenaline (Epinephrine) – functions in
emergency
• Noradrenalin (norepinephrine) –accelerates
heart in normal conditions

• They influence SA node

• Thyroxine – Secreted by thyroid gland -
increases oxidative metabolism – indirectly
increases heart beat
 Heart rate
• 72 beats per minute
• Increases during exercise, fever, fear, anger
• Smaller animals – higher heart rate
• Larger animal – lower hear rate
 Cardiac output
• 70 ml of blood is pumped in every beat
• 5040 ml per minute (5 litres)
• Equivalent to total volume of blood in the
body
 Pulse
• Rythmic contraction and relaxation of Aorta
and arteries
• Called arterial pulse because it is jerk of artery
• Pulse rate is same as heart rate – artery pulses
every time a heart beats
• Radial artery – in wrist – used for checking
pulse
 Factors affecting pulse rate
• Age – children have rapid pulse rates
• Gender – rapid in females
• Posture – rapid when standing up
• Emotions – Strong emotions show rapid pulse
• Exercise
 Cardiac cycle
• One complete beat – one cycle of contraction and
one cycle of relaxation
• Atria and ventricles contracts and relaxes
• Systole – contraction
• Diastole – relaxation
• Duration of cardiac cycle -0.8 sec
• Diastole – 0.4 sec
• Atrial systole -0.1 sec
• Ventricular systole -0.3 sec
 Stages of cardiac cycle
• Atrial systole
– Atria contracts
– SA node triggers
– Blood moves from atrium to ventricles
• Beginning of ventricular systole
– Ventricles contract
– Stimulated by AV node
– Bicuspid and tricuspid valve closes
– Lub sound
 Stages
• Completion of Ventricular systole
– Blood flows through pulmonary trunk and aorta
• Beginning of ventricular diastole
– Ventricles relax
– Semilunar valves are closed
– Dub sound
• Complete ventricular diastole
– Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are open
– Blood flows into the ventricle
 Heart sounds
• Checked with a sthetoscope
• First sound
– Lubb
– Low pitched
– Caused because of closure of bicuspid, tricuspid valves
and contraction of ventricles
• Second sound
– Dub
– High pitched, sharper
– Closure of semilunar valves and end of ventricular
systole
 Heart sounds
• The sound quality indicates the state of valves
• Lub –shhh sound is heard when semilunar
valves are damaged
• It is called heart murmur
• Caused because of syphillis, rheumatic fever
or any other disease which affects the valves
 ECG
• Electrocardiograph
• Graphic record of the electric current
produced by the cardiac muscles
• Waller recorded ECG, Einthoven studied the
ECG
• Einthoven – father of electrocardiography and
Nobel laurete
• 4 electrodes are attached in arms and legs and
one in the chest
 Understanding ECG
• Made up of three waves
• P Wave :
– Small upward wave
– Represents the electrical excitation of atrial
depolarisation which leads to the contraction of
atria
– Caused because of SA node activation
 Understanding ECG
• The QRS wave
– Small downward deflection Q, followed by large
upright R and downward S at the base
– Represents ventricular contraction
– Pulses generated from AV node
– Due to spread of electrical waves through the
ventricle
 Understanding ECG
• T wave:
– Dome shaped
– Represents ventricular repolarisation or
ventricular relaxation
– End of T wave marks end of systole
 Normal levels
• P-R interval - <0.12 to 0.2 sec ( time taken by
the impulse to travel through the atria)
• QRS duration – < 0.10 sec
• Q –T interval - <0.42 sec
 Abnormalities
• Enlargement of P wave – enlargement of atria
• Enlarged QR – Myocardial infarction
• Elevated ST – indicates acute myocardial
infarction
• Flat T wave – heat receives insufficient oxygen
which may be increased by increased K levels
 Human Lymphatic system
• Lymph
• Lymph capillaries –
– lacteals
– end blindly
– Thin walled
– Composed of endothelial cells
• Lymphatic vessels
– United Lymphatic capillaries
– Composed of three coats – fibrous, muscular,
endothelial
 Lymphatic system
• Lymph node:
– Oval bean shaped structures
– Present along lymph vessels
– Numerous in thoracic mediastinum
– Produces B and T lymphocytes
– Macrophages remove the debris from this region
– B &T lymphocytes get transferred to the plasma in
this region
 Lymphatic system
• Thoracic duct
– Lymph vessel of left side unite to form thoracic
duct
– Discharges lymph into left subclavian vein
• Right lymphatic duct
– Discharges lymph into the left subclavian vein
 Blood vessels
• Arteries and veins
• Arteries carry blood from heart to other parts
• Veins carry blood from body to heart
• Artery and veins divide into arterioles and
venules
• They further divide into capillaries
• Capillaries are united
 Coats of blood vessel
• Tunica externa / Tunica adventitia:
– Outermost
– Formed of connective tissue
• Tunica media
– Elastic connective tissue and smooth muscle fibres
– Thicker in artery
• Tunica Interna
– Innermost
– Made up of two parts – elastic membrane (thick in
artery) and endothelium(long in artery)
 Circulation
• Double circulation
– Systemic circulation Aorta  Body parts except
lungs  Right atrium
• Bronchial arteries are part of systemic circulation
– Pulmonary circulation
– Right ventricleLungsHeart
Circulation through special regions
• Coronary circulation
• Ascending aorta carries oxygenated blood
from heart to heart muscles
• Coronary arteries carry the blood to the heart
• Coronary veins brings deoxygenated blood to
the coronary sinus
 Hepatic portal circulation
• Blood enter liver from two sources
– Hepatic artery from abdominal aorta
– Hepatic portal vein from digestive organs(hepatic
portal circulation)
• Portal vein – a vein which carries
deoxygenated blood to any other part apart
from heart
 Veins that opens into the portal vein
• Superior mesentric vein
– Brings blood from small intestine, large intestine and
stomach
• Spleenic vein
– Brings blood from pancreas, stomach and large
intestine
• Gastric veins(L+R)
– Brings blood from stomach
• Cystic vein
– Brings blood from gall bladder
 Hypophysial circulation
• Hypophysial portal vein
– Carries blood from hypothalamus to hypophysis
(anterior lobe of pituitary)
– Hormones of hypothalamus reaches pitutary
gland
 Disorders – Hypertension
• High blood pressure
• 120/80 is normal
• But blood pressure increases beyond 140mm Hg
and 90mm Hg

• Cause: oily greasy diet with salt – thickens artery

• Tobacco smoking
• Mental tension
 Coronary heart disease /
Artheroscelerosis
• Deposition of triglycerides and cholestrol in
tunica interna
• Called Artherosceleratic plaque
• Deforms aterial wall
• The structure helps smooth muscles to
proliferate which releases platelet derived
growth factor
• Blocks heart
 Arterioscelerosis
• Loss of elasticity of arteries
• Calcium salts precipitate with cholesterol
• Hardens artery – Calcification
• Walls may rupture
• Blood comes out and clots
• Leads to heart attack
 Heart block
• Impulses are interrupted
• Impulses does not follow normal conduction
• AV block
• Bundle branch block
 Cerebro vascular accident
• Stroke
• Sudden interruption of flow of blood to brain
causes rupture of cerebral blood vessel
• Causes paralysis
 Rheumatic heart disease
• Acute rheumatic fever may cause damage to
valves of heart
• Streptococcus bacteria can cause
 Congenital heart disease
• Birth defects of heart
• Error in development
• Due to infections during pregnancy
• Chromosomal abnormality
 Oedema
• Puffiness
• Lymph capillaries fail to return lymph to blood
• Accumulation of lymph in tissues
• Causes local swelling
 Others
• Tachycardia – fast beat
• Bradycardia – slow beat
• Cardiac arrest – stops beating
• Infarction – Death of a heart muscle – damage
due to inadequate supply
• Coronary thrombosis – formation of clot in
coronary artery
• Ebsteins disease – downward displacement of
tricuspid valve
 Therapeutic devices
• Pacemakers
• Defibrillator – restores normal rhythm
• Angioplasty – removes plaque by ballooning
• Balloon tip catheter is inserted into coronary
artery under x ray observation
• Stent – spring inserted in artery
• Bypass grafting
End of Chapter