Lect - 10 External Forced Convection

Dr. Senthilmurugan S.
Department of Chemical Engineering IIT Guwahati - Part 10
External Forced Convection

Objectives
 Distinguish between internal and external flow

 Develop an intuitive understanding of friction drag and
pressure drag, and evaluate the average drag and
convection coefficients in external flow
 Evaluate the drag and heat transfer associated with flow
over a flat plate for both laminar and turbulent flow
 Calculate the drag force exerted on cylinders during cross
flow, and the average heat transfer coefficient
 Determine the pressure drop and the average heat transfer
coefficient associated with flow across a tube bank for both
in-line and staggered configurations
April 2, 2019 | Slide 2

Drag and Heat Transfer In External Flow
Flow over bodies is commonly

 Fluid flow over solid bodies frequently encountered in practice.
occurs in practice such as the drag force
acting on the automobiles, power lines,
trees, and underwater pipelines; the lift
developed by airplane wings; upward draft
of rain, snow, hail, and dust particles in
high winds; and the cooling of metal or
plastic sheets, steam and hot water pipes,
and extruded wires.
 Free-stream velocity: The velocity of the
fluid relative to an immersed solid body
sufficiently far from the body.
 It is usually taken to be equal to the
upstream velocity V (approach velocity)
which is the velocity of the approaching
fluid far ahead of the body.
 The fluid velocity ranges from zero at the
surface (the no-slip condition) to the free-
stream value away from the surface.

Friction and Pressure Drag
Drag force acting on a flat plate parallel to the

flow depends on wall shear only
 Drag: The force a flowing fluid exerts on
a body in the flow direction.
 The components of the pressure and
wall shear forces in the normal direction
to flow tend to move the body in that
direction, and their sum is called lift.
 Both the skin friction (wall shear) and Drag force
pressure contribute to the drag and the acting on a flat
lift. plate normal to
the flow
Schematic for measuring the drag

force acting on a car in a wind tunnel.
Flat Plat
 The drag force FD depends on the For parallel flow over a flat plate
density of the fluid, the upstream
velocity V, and the size, shape, and
orientation of the body, among other
things.
 The drag characteristics of a body is
represented by the dimensionless drag
coefficient CD defined as
 Drag coefficient:
 The part of drag that is due directly to

wall shear stress w is called the skin
friction drag (or just friction drag) since it For parallel flow over a flat plate, the pressure
is caused by frictional effects, and the drag is zero, and thus the drag coefficient is
part that is due directly to pressure P is equal to the friction coefficient and the drag
called the pressure drag. force is equal to the friction force.

 At low Reynolds numbers, most drag is  Wake: The region of flow trailing the
due to friction drag.
body where the effects of the body on
 The friction drag is proportional to the
surface area. velocity are felt.
 The pressure drag is proportional to the  Viscous and rotational effects are the
frontal area and to the difference between most significant in the boundary layer,
the pressures acting on the front and back
of the immersed body. the separated region, and the wake.
 The pressure drag is usually dominant for
blunt bodies and negligible for streamlined
bodies.
 When a fluid separates from a body, it
forms a separated region between the
body and the fluid stream.
 Separated region: The low-pressure
region behind the body here recirculating
and backflows occur.
 The larger the separated region, the larger
the pressure drag. Separation during flow over a
tennis ball and the wake region
Convection Heat Transfer
Local and average

Nusselt numbers:
Average Nusselt number:
Film temperature:
Average friction coefficient:
Average heat transfer coefficient:
The heat transfer rate:

(an isothermal surface)

Parallel flow over flat plates
 The transition from laminar to turbulent  The actual value of the engineering
flow depends on the surface geometry, critical Reynolds number for a flat plate
surface roughness, upstream velocity, may vary somewhat from 105 to 3  106,
surface temperature, and the type of depending on the surface roughness,
fluid, among other things, and is best the turbulence level, and the variation of
characterized by the Reynolds number. pressure along the surface.
 The Reynolds number at a distance x
from the leading edge of a flat plate is Laminar and turbulent regions
of the boundary layer during
expressed as flow over a flat plate
 A generally accepted value for the

Critical Reynold number

Friction Coefficient
 Based on analysis, the boundary layer  The average friction coefficient over the
thickness and the local friction entire plate
coefficient at location x for laminar flow
over a flat plate were determined
 From experiments the corresponding  From experiments the corresponding

relations for turbulent flow are relations for turbulent flow are
 Combined Laminar + Turbulent flow:

Friction Coefficient
Parallel flow over flat plates - Rough Surface
 For laminar flow, the friction coefficient

depends on only the Reynolds number,
and the surface roughness has no
effect.
 For turbulent flow, however, surface
roughness causes the friction coefficient
to increase several fold, to the point that
in fully turbulent regime the friction
coefficient is a function of surface
roughness alone, and independent of
the Reynolds number
where  is the surface roughness, and L
 A curve fit of experimental data for the
is the length of the plate in the flow
average friction coefficient in this regime
direction. In the absence of a better
is given by Schlichting (1979) as
relation, the relation above can be used
for turbulent flow on rough surfaces for
Re > l06, especially when  /L > 10-4.

Heat Transfer Coefficient
 The local Nusselt number at a location x  The average Nusselt number

for laminar flow over a flat plate
 From experiments the corresponding

relation for turbulent flow is

Heat Transfer Coefficient variation
The variation of the local friction Graphical representation of the
and heat transfer coefficients for average heat transfer coefficient for a
flow over a flat plate. flat plate with combined laminar and
turbulent flow

Average Nusselt number over the entire plate
At High and low Pr Number
 A flat plate is sufficiently long for the flow  Liquid metals such as mercury have
to become turbulent, but not long high thermal conductivities, and are
enough to disregard the laminar flow commonly used in applications that
region. In such cases, the average heat require high heat transfer rates.
However, they have very small Prandtl
transfer coefficient over the entire plate numbers, and thus the thermal
is determined by performing the boundary layer develops much faster
integration than the velocity boundary layer.
 Then we can assume the velocity in the
thermal boundary layer to be constant at
the free stream value and solve the
energy equation
 The average Nusselt number over the
entire plate is determined to be
 where Pex = Rex Pr is the dimensionless

Peclet number

Average Nusselt number over the entire plate
Generalised equation
 It is desirable to have a single  These relations have been obtained for

correlation that applies to all fluids, the case of isothermal surfaces but
including liquid metals could also be used approximately for the
 By curve-fitting existing data, Churchill case of nonisothermal surfaces by
and Ozoe (1973) proposed the following assuming the surface temperature to be
relation which is applicable for all constant at some average value.
Prandtl numbers and is claimed to be  Also, the surfaces are assumed to be
accurate to ±1%, smooth, and the free stream to be
turbulent free. The effect of variable
properties can be accounted for by
evaluating all properties at the film
temperature.

Flat Plate with Unheated Starting Length
Local Heat transfer coefficient

 For Laminar flow conditions
 For Turbulent flow conditions
Average heat transfer coefficient

 For Laminar flow conditions
Flow over a flat plate with an unheated

 For Turbulent flow conditions starting length

Flat plat with uniform heat flux
 When a flat plate is subjected to uniform heat flux instead of uniform temperature,
the local Nusselt number is given by
 These relations give values that are 36 percent higher for laminar flow and 4 percent
higher for turbulent flow relative to the isothermal plate case.
 When heat flux is prescribed, the rate of heat transfer to or from the plate and the
surface temperature at a distance x are determined from

Flow across cylinders and spheres
 Flow across cylinders and spheres is frequently encountered in practice.

 For example, the tubes in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger involve both internal flow
through the tubes and external flow over the tubes, and both flows must be
considered in the analysis of the heat exchanger.
 Also, many sports such as soccer, tennis, and golf involve flow over spherical balls.
 The characteristic length for a circular cylinder or sphere is taken to be the external
diameter D.
 Thus, the Reynolds number is defined as Re = ReD = VD/
 where V is the uniform velocity of the fluid as it approaches the cylinder or sphere.
 The critical Reynolds number for flow across a circular cylinder or sphere is about
Recr  2x105.
 That is, the boundary layer remains laminar for about Re ≤ 2x105 and becomes
turbulent for Re ≤ 2x105.

Flow across cylinders
At very low velocities, the fluid completely

wraps around the cylinder. Flow in the
wake region is characterized by periodic
vortex formation and low pressures.
Laminar boundary layer separation with

a turbulent wake; flow over a circular
cylinder at Re = 2000

Flow across spheres
Flow visualization of flow over a smooth Flow visualization of flow over a smooth
sphere at Re = 15,000 with a trip wire. sphere at Re = 30,000 with a trip wire.
Flow separation occurs at about   80, when the boundary layer is laminar and at
about   140 when it is turbulent

Experimental drag coefficient for sphere and cylinder
Average drag coefficient for  For flow over cylinder or sphere, both
crossflow over a smooth circular the friction drag and the pressure drag
cylinder and a smooth sphere. can be significant.
 The high pressure in the vicinity of the
stagnation point and the low pressure
on the opposite side in the wake
produce a net force on the body in the
direction of flow.
 The drag force is primarily due to friction
drag at low Reynolds numbers (Re<10)
and to pressure drag at high Reynolds
numbers (Re>5000).
 Both effects are significant at
intermediate Reynolds numbers.

Effect of Surface Roughness
 In general, increases the drag The effect of surface roughness on the

coefficient in turbulent flow drag coefficient of a sphere.
 Surface roughness, in general,
increases the drag coefficient in
turbulent flow.
 This is especially the case for
streamlined bodies.
 For blunt bodies such as a circular
cylinder or sphere, however, an increase
in the surface roughness may increase
or decrease the drag coefficient
depending on Reynolds number.
Surface roughness may increase or decrease the

drag coefficient of a spherical object, depending on
the value of the Reynolds number.

Variation of the local heat transfer
coefficient along the circumference of
a circular cylinder in cross flow of air
• Flows across cylinders and spheres, in separation
general, involve flow separation, which point in
is difficult to handle analytically. turbulent flow
• Flow across cylinders and spheres has
been studied experimentally by
numerous investigators, and several
empirical correlations have been
developed for the heat transfer
coefficient.
• The value of Nu starts out relatively
high at the stagnation point,
• but decreases with increasing  as a
result of the thickening of the laminar Transition from
laminar to
boundary layer turbulent flow
separation point in
laminar flow
Cylinder and sphere
 Several relations are available in the literature for the average Nusselt number for cross
flow over a cylinder
 Churchill and Bernstein (1977) proposed following correlation
 This relation is quite comprehensive in that it correlates available data well for Re.Pr>0.2.
The fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature Tf =(½)(T-Ts), which is the
average of the free-stream and surface temperatures
 For flow over a sphere, Whitaker (1972) recommends the following comprehensive
correlation
 Valid for 3.5 ≤ Re ≤ 8 x 104, 0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 380 and 1.0 ≤ (/s) ≤ 3.2. The fluid properties
in this case are evaluated at the free-stream temperature T, except for s, which is
evaluated at the surface temperature Ts. Although the two relations above are considered
to be quite accurate, the results obtained from them can be off by as much as 30
percent.

General Equation for average Nusselt number for flow
across cylinders
 The average Nusselt number for flow

across cylinders can be expressed
compactly as
 where n = 1/3 and C and m are

estimated experimentally

Flow across tube banks

Flow across tube banks
 Cross-flow over tube banks is commonly encountered in practice in heat transfer

equipment, e.g., heat exchangers.
 In such equipment, one fluid moves through the tubes while the other moves over
the tubes in a perpendicular direction.
 Flow through the tubes can be analyzed by considering flow through a single tube,
and multiplying the results by the number of tubes.
 For flow over the tubes the tubes affect the flow pattern and turbulence level
downstream, and thus heat transfer to or from them are altered.
• Typical arrangement: in-line or staggered
• The outer tube diameter D is the characteristic length.
• The arrangement of the tubes are characterized by the transverse pitch ST,
longitudinal pitch SL , and the diagonal pitch SD between tube centers.

Flow patterns for in-line and staggered tube banks.
staggered
in-line

Dimensions of inline and staggered arrangements
In-line Staggered
Arrangement of the tubes in in-line and staggered tube banks (A1, AT,
and AD are flow areas at indicated locations, and L is the length of the tubes

Maximum Velocity Calculation
 In tube banks, the flow characteristics  For in-line arrangement, the maximum
are dominated by the maximum velocity velocity occurs at the minimum flow
Vmax that occurs within the tube bank area between the tubes, and the
rather than the approach velocity V. conservation of mass can be expressed
 Therefore, the Reynolds number is as
defined on the basis of maximum
velocity as
 In staggered arrangement, if
 The maximum velocity is determined
from the conservation of mass
requirement for steady incompressible
flow  If

Heat transfer coefficient correlations
Tube banks NL>16
 Several correlations, all based on

experimental data, have been proposed
for the average Nusselt number for cross
flow over tube banks. More recently,
Zukauskas (1987) has proposed
correlations whose general form is
 where the values of the constants C, m,

and n depend on Reynolds number.
 The uncertainty inthe values of Nusselt For tube banks with more than 16
number obtained from these relations is rows (NL > 16), 0.7 < Pr < 500 and 0 < ReD
±15 percent. < 2 x106.
 Note that all properties except Prs are to where Ti and Te are the fluid temperatures
be evaluated at the arithmetic mean at the inlet and the exit of the tube bank,
temperature of the fluid determined from respectively.

Heat transfer coefficient correlations
Tube banks NL<16
 Correction factor is introduced when NL<16 provided that they are modified as
 where F is a correction factor

 For ReD > 1000, the correction factor is independent of Reynolds number.

Pressure Drop Calculations
Tube banks
 Another quantity of interest associated

with tube banks is the pressure drop DP,
which is the irreversible pressure loss
between the inlet and the exit of the
tube bank. It is a measure of the
resistance the tubes offer to flow over
them, and is expressed as

Summary
 Drag and Heat Transfer in External Flow

 Friction and pressure drag
 Heat transfer
 Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

 Friction coefficient
 Heat transfer coefficient
 Flat plate with unheated starting length
 Uniform Heat Flux
 Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

 Effect of surface roughness
 Heat transfer coefficient
 Flow across Tube Banks

 Pressure drop

FORCED CONVECTION ON FLAT PLATE
Example 7-1 (Yunus A)
 EXAMPLE 7–1 Flow of Hot Oil over a Flat Plate
 Engine oil at 60 𝑜𝐶 flows over the upper surface of a 5-m-long flat
plate whose temperature is 20 𝑜𝐶 with a velocity of 2 m/s (fig7.1)
Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer per unit
width of the entire plate.
Fig( 7-1)

Solution: Example 7.1
SOLUTION : Engine oil flows over a flat plate. The total drag force and the rate
of heat transfer per unit width of the plate are to be determined.
ASSUMPTIONS :
 The flow is steady and incompressible.
 The critical Reynolds number is 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑟 =5 x 105 .
PROPERTIES : The properties of engine oil at the film temperature of 𝑇𝑓 = (𝑇𝑓 +𝑇𝑓 )/2
=(20+60)/2 = 40 C
 ρ = 876 kg/m3  Pr = 2962

 k = 0.1444 W/(m.K)  𝑣 = 2.485 x10-4 m2/s
ANALYSIS: Noting that L =5m, the Reynolds number at the end of the plate is
𝑚
𝑉𝐿 2 5(𝑚)
 𝑅𝑒𝐿 = = 𝑠
𝑚
2 = 4.024 x104
𝑣 2.485 𝑋 10−4 ( 𝑠 )

Cont….
 which is less than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have laminar flow
over the entire plate, and the average friction coefficient is
𝐶𝑓 = 1.33 𝑅𝑒𝐿−.5 =1.33 x (4.024 x104 ) -.5 = 0.00663
Noting that the pressure drag is zero and thus 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝑓 for parallel flow over a
flat plate, the drag force acting on the plate per unit width becomes
𝜌 𝑉2 (876 kg/m) x (2m/s)2 1𝑁 = 58.1 N = 5.93 kg
 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝑓 𝐴 2 = 0.00663 x5x1m2
2 1 𝑘𝑔.𝑚/𝑠2
The total drag force acting on the entire plate can be determined by multiplying
the value obtained above by the width of the plate.
This force per unit width corresponds to the weight of a mass of about 6 kg.
Therefore, a person who applies an equal and opposite force to the plate to
keep it from moving will feel like he or she is using as much force as is
necessary to hold a 6-kg mass from dropping.
Similarly, the Nusselt number is determined using the laminar flow relations
for a flat plate,

Cont….
ℎ𝐿 1/3
 𝑁𝑢 = = 0.664 𝑅𝑒𝐿−.5 𝑃𝑟 = 0.664 (4.024 x104 ) -.5 x (2962)1/3 = 1913
𝑘
 Then,
0.1444
𝑘
 h = 𝑁𝑢 = x 1913 = 55.25 W/m2.K
𝐿 5
ሶ
 𝑄=h As( 𝑇∞ - 𝑇𝑜 ) = 55.25 x (5x1 m2)x(60-20) = 11050 W

Example 7-3
The forming section of a plastics plant puts out a continuous sheet of plastic
that is 4 ft wide and 0.04 in thick at a velocity of 30 ft/min. The temperature
of the plastic sheet is 200oF when it is exposed to the surrounding air, and
a 2-ft-long section of the plastic sheet is subjected to air flow at 80oF at a
velocity of 10 ft/s on both sides along its surfaces normal to the direction of
motion of the sheet, as shown in Fig.
Determine
 The rate of heat transfer from the plastic sheet to air by forced convection
and radiation.
 Calculate the temperature of the plastic sheet at the end of the cooling
section.
 Data
 Density= 75lbm/ft3
 Specific heat =0.4Btu/(lbm.oF)
 Emissivity of plastic sheet= 0.9
Schematic of Cooling of Plastic Sheet.

Cont….
SOLUTION : Plastic sheets are cooled as they leave the forming section of a
plastics plant. The rate of heat loss from the plastic sheet by convection and
radiation and the exit temperature of the plastic sheet are to be determined.
ASSUMPTIONS
 Steady operating conditions exist.
 The critical Reynolds number is Recr= 5 x 105
 Air is an ideal gas.
 The local atmospheric pressure is 1 atm.
 The surrounding surfaces are at the temperature of the room air.
PROPERTIES The properties of the plastic sheet are given in the problem
statement. The properties of air at the film temperature of
𝑇𝑓 =(𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞ )/2 =(200+80)/2 = 140oF and 1atm pressure are
 k = 0.01623 Btu/(h.ft.oF)  Pr = 0.7202

 𝑣 = 0.204 x 10-3 ft2/s

Cont….
ANALYSIS (a) We expect the temperature of the plastic sheet to drop
somewhat as it flows through the 2-ft-long cooling section, but at this point we
do not know the magnitude of that drop. Therefore, we assume the plastic
sheet to be isothermal at 200oF to get started. We will repeat the calculations if
necessary to account for the temperature drop of the plastic sheet.
Noting that L = 4 ft, the Reynolds number at the end of the air flow across
the plastic sheet is
𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝐿 10 𝑠 4(𝑓𝑡)
𝑅𝑒𝐿 = = 𝑓𝑡2 = 1.961 x105
𝑣 0.204 𝑋 10−3 ( )
𝑠
which is less than the critical Reynolds number. Thus, we have laminar flow
over the entire sheet, and the Nusselt number is determined from the laminar
flow relations for a flat plate to be

Cont….
ℎ𝐿 1/3
𝑁𝑢 = = 0.664 𝑅𝑒𝐿−.5 𝑃𝑟 = 0.664 x (1.961 x 105)-0.5 x (0.7202)1/3 = 263.6
𝑘
𝑜
𝑘 0.01623𝐵𝑡𝑢/(ℎ.𝑓𝑡. 𝐹)
 h = 𝐿 𝑁𝑢 = x 263.6 = 1.07 Btu/(h.ft2.oF)
4𝑓𝑡
As = (2 ft)(4 ft)(2 sides) 5=16 ft2
𝑄ሶ conv = h As( 𝑇∞ - 𝑇𝑜 ) = 1.07 x 16 x (200-80) = 2054 Btu/h
 𝑄ሶ 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∈ 𝜎 𝐴𝑠(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇∞4 )

=(0.9) x (0.1714 x 10-8 Btu/h.ft2.R4)(16 ft2)[(660 R)4 - (540 R)4]
= 2585 Btu/h

Cont….
Therefore, the rate of cooling of the plastic sheet by combined convection
and radiation is
ሶ = 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ሶ + 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑
ሶ
=2054 + 2585 = 4639 Btu/h
(b) To find the temperature of the plastic sheet at the end of the cooling section,
we need to know the mass of the plastic rolling out per unit time (or the mass flow
rate), which is determined from
ሶ 𝑙𝑏𝑚 4 𝑋 0.4
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌 𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 75 ( 𝑓𝑡3 )( 12 ft2)(30/60ft/s)=0.5lbm/s
Then, an energy balance on the cooled section of the plastic sheet yields

𝑄ሶ
ሶ 𝑚ሶ Cp( 𝑇2 - 𝑇1 )
𝑄= T2=T1+ ሶ
𝑚𝐶𝑝
Noting that Q is a negative quantity (heat loss) for the plastic sheet and
substituting,the temperature of the plastic sheet as it leaves the cooling section
is determined to be
−4649𝐵𝑡𝑢/ℎ 1ℎ
 T2= 200 oF+ 0.5𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐵𝑡𝑢
= 193.6 oF
𝑋 0.4( ) 3600𝑠
𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑚.𝑜𝐹

Lect - 10 External Forced Convection

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Lect - 10 External Forced Convection

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Dr. Senthilmurugan S.

Department of Chemical Engineering IIT Guwahati - Part 10

External Forced Convection

 Distinguish between internal and external flow

April 2, 2019 | Slide 2

Flow over bodies is commonly

April 2, 2019 | Slide 3

Drag force acting on a flat plate parallel to the

Schematic for measuring the drag

 The part of drag that is due directly to

April 2, 2019 | Slide 5

Local and average

Average Nusselt number:

Average friction coefficient:

Average heat transfer coefficient:

The heat transfer rate:

April 2, 2019 | Slide 7

 A generally accepted value for the

April 2, 2019 | Slide 8

 From experiments the corresponding  From experiments the corresponding

 Combined Laminar + Turbulent flow:

April 2, 2019 | Slide 9

 For laminar flow, the friction coefficient

April 2, 2019 | Slide 10

 The local Nusselt number at a location x  The average Nusselt number

 From experiments the corresponding

April 2, 2019 | Slide 11

April 2, 2019 | Slide 12

 where Pex = Rex Pr is the dimensionless

April 2, 2019 | Slide 13

 It is desirable to have a single  These relations have been obtained for

April 2, 2019 | Slide 14

Local Heat transfer coefficient

 For Turbulent flow conditions

Average heat transfer coefficient

Flow over a flat plate with an unheated

April 2, 2019 | Slide 15

April 2, 2019 | Slide 16

 Flow across cylinders and spheres is frequently encountered in practice.

April 2, 2019 | Slide 17

At very low velocities, the fluid completely

Laminar boundary layer separation with

April 2, 2019 | Slide 18

April 2, 2019 | Slide 19

April 2, 2019 | Slide 20

 In general, increases the drag The effect of surface roughness on the

Surface roughness may increase or decrease the

April 2, 2019 | Slide 21

April 2, 2019 | Slide 23

 The average Nusselt number for flow

 where n = 1/3 and C and m are

April 2, 2019 | Slide 24

April 2, 2019 | Slide 25

 Cross-flow over tube banks is commonly encountered in practice in heat transfer

April 2, 2019 | Slide 26

April 2, 2019 | Slide 27

April 2, 2019 | Slide 28

April 2, 2019 | Slide 29

 Several correlations, all based on

 where the values of the constants C, m,

April 2, 2019 | Slide 30

 where F is a correction factor