WELD QUALITY

Level 1-Chap 6
Objectives

 When we have finished this chapter, you

should be able to :
 Identify and explain codes governing welding
 Identify and explain weld imperfections and their
causes
 Identify and explain nondestructive examinations
 Identify and explain welder qualifications
 Perform a visual inspection of fillet welds
1.0.0 Introduction

 Quality is an important aspect of the welder’s

job.
 Acceptable welding criteria have been
established in codes and standards.
 Several codes govern welding activities,
qualification requirements, and tests.
2.0.0 codes governing welding

 A code is a set of requirements covering:

 Permissible materials
 Service limitations
 Fabrication
 Inspection
 Testing procedures
 Qualification of welders
2.0.0 codes governing welding

 Welding codes ensure that safe and reliable welded

products will be produced.
 Clients specify in the contract which codes will be
used on the project.
 All welding must then be performed following the
guidelines and specifications outlined in that code.
 Agencies and societies that have established codes
include:
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 American Welding Society (AWS)
 American Petroleum Institute (API)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
2.1.0 American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 ASME has two codes:
 ASME boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
 ASME B31, Code for Pressure Piping
 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
contains eleven sections.
 The sections most referenced are:
 Section II – Material Specifications
 This sections contains specifications for acceptable
ferrous material (part A) and non-ferrous (part B) base
metals and for acceptable welding and brazing filler
metals and fluxes (part C).
2.1.0 American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 The sections most referenced are:
 Section V - Nondestructive Examination
 This sections covers the methods and standards for
nondestructive examination of boilers and pressure
vessels.
 Section IX – Welding and Brazing Qualifications
 This section covers the qualification of welders,
welding operations, brazers, and brazing operations.
2.1.0 American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (Asme)
 ASME B31 – Code for Pressure Piping
 Consists of eight sections.
 Each section gives the minimum requirements for the
design, materials, fabrication, erection, testing , and
inspection of a particular type of piping.
 Section B31.1 – Power Piping covers power and
auxiliary service systems for electrical generation
stations
 Section B31.3 covers chemical plant and petroleum
refining piping.
 All sections of ASME B31-Code for Pressure Piping,
require qualification of the welding procedure and
testing of welders.
2.2.0 American Welding
Society (AWS)
 The American Welding Society publishes
numerous documents covering welding.
 AWS D1.1 – Structural Welding Code –Steel
 Most frequently referenced code book
 It covers welding and qualification requirements
for welded structures of carbon and low-alloy
steels.
2.3.0 American Petroleum
Institute (API)
 The American Petroleum Institute publishes
documents in all areas related to petroleum
production.
 API 1104 – Standard for Welding of Pipelines
and Related Facilities - applies to arc and
oxyfuel welding of piping ,pumping,
transmission, and distribution system for
petroleum.
 API 1104 also presents suitable methods to
ensure proper analysis of weld quality.
2.4.0 American National
Standards Institute (ANSI)
 The American National Standards Institute is
a private organization that does not actually
prepare standards.
 Instead, it adopts standards that it feels are of
value to the public interest.
 ANSI standards deal with dimensions,
ratings, terminology and symbols, test
methods, safety specifications.
3.0.0 Basic Elements of
Welding Codes
 All welding codes provide detailed
information about qualification in three
general areas.
 These are:
 Welding procedure qualification
 Welder performance qualification
 Welding operator qualification
 Machine welding is covered in some codes
but is not common to all codes.
3.1.0 Welding Procedure
Qualification
 A welding procedure is a written document that
contains:
 Materials
 Methods
 Processes
 Electrode Type
 All other relevant information
 Welding procedures must be qualified before
they can be used.
 Procedure qualification has nothing to do with
the skills of the individual welder.
3.1.0 Welding Procedure
Qualification
 Welding procedure qualification are limiting
instructions written to explain how welding
will be done.
 These limiting instructions are listed in a
document known as a welding procedure
specification (WPS).
3.1.0 Welding Procedure
Qualification
 The purpose of the WPS is to define and
document in detail the variables involved in
welding a certain base metal.
 The WPS lists the following in detail:
 Base metals to be joined
 Filler metal to be used
 Range of preheat and postheat treatment
 Thickness of material and other variables
described for each welding process
3.1.0 Welding Procedure
Qualification
 WPS variables are identified either as
essential or nonessential variables.
 Essential variables are item in the welding
procedure specification that cannot be
changed without requalifying the welding
procedure.
 Nonessential variables are items in the WPS
that ay be changed within a range identified
by the code.
3.1.0 Welding Procedure
Qualification
 The following can be considered essential
variable in a welding procedure:
 Filler metal classification
 Material thickness
 Joint design
 Type of base metal
 Welding process
 Amperage
 Travel speed
 Shielding gas
 Electrode and filler wire size
3.1.0 Welding Procedure
Qualification
 The WPS is qualified for use by welding test
coupons and by testing the coupons in
accordance with the code.
 The test coupons are used to make:
 Tensile test
 Root bends
 Face bends
 The test results are then recorded on a
document known as a procedure qualification
record (PQR).
3.3.0 Welder Operator
Qualification
 When fully automatic welding equipment is
used, the operators of the equipment must
demonstrate their ability to set up and
monitor the equipment.
 The codes also contain qualification test for
these operators.
4.0.0 Weld Discontinuities
and Their Causes
 Codes and standards define the quality
necessary to achieve the integrity and
reliability of the weldment.
 Weld discontinuities can prevent a weld from
meeting the minimum quality requirements.
 AWS defines a discontinuity as an
interruption of the typical structure of a
weldment.
4.0.0 Weld Discontinuities
and Their Causes
 A discontinuity in not necessarily a defect.
 A defect found during inspection will require
the weld to be rejected.
 A weld can have one or more discontinuities
and still be acceptable.
4.0.0 Weld Discontinuities
and Their Causes
 The welder should be able to identify
discontinuities.
 The most common weld discontinuities are:
 Porosity
 Inclusions
 Incomplete joint penetration
 Incomplete fusion
 Undercut
 Arc strikes
 Unacceptable weld profile
4.1.0 Porosity

 Porosity is the presence of voids or empty spots in

the weld metal.
 Porosity is the result of gas pockets being trapped in
the weld as it is being made.
 Porosity can be grouped into four major groups:
 Uniformly scattered porosity – located evenly through out a
weld
 Cluster porosity – a localized grouping of pores that results
from improper starting or stopping the weld
 Linear porosity – aligned along a weld face, the root, or a
boundary between beads
 Piping porosity – normally extends from the root of the
weld toward the face
 Most porosity is caused by improper welding
techniques or contamination.
4.1.0 Porosity
4.2.0 Inclusions

 Inclusions are foreign matter trapped in the

weld metal, between weld beads, or between
the weld metal and the base metal.
 Inclusions generally result from faulty
welding techniques, improper access to the
joint for welding or both.
 A typical example of an inclusion is slag.
 Inclusions are more likely to occur in out-of-
position welds.
4.2.0 Inclusions
Break Time

 15 minute break
4.3.0 Cracks

 Cracks are narrow breaks that occur in the

weld metal, in the base metal, or in the crater
formed at the end of a weld bead.
 They are caused when localized stress exceed
the ultimate strength of the metal.
 Cracks are generally located near other weld
discontinuities.
4.3.0 Cracks
4.3.1 Weld Metal Cracks

 Three basic types of cracks can occur in weld

metal:
 Transverse
 Longitudinal
 Crater
 Transverse cracks run across the face of the weld
and may extend into the base metal.
 Longitudinal cracks are usually located in the
center of the weld.
 Crater cracks have a tendency to form in the
crater whenever welding is interrupted.
4.3.1 Weld Metal Cracks
4.3.1 Weld Metal Cracks

 Weld metal cracking can usually be reduced

by taking one or more of the following
actions:
 Changing the electrode manipulation
 Increase the thickness of the deposit to resist the
stresses by decreasing the travel speed
 Preheating
 Using low-hydrogen electrodes
 Avoiding rapid cooling conditions
4.3.2 Base Metal Cracks

 Base metal cracking usually occurs within the

heat-affected zone of the metal being
welded.
 These cracks usually occur along the edges of
the weld and through the heat-affected zone
into the base metal.
 Weld toe cracks are generally the result of
strains caused by thermal shrinkage acting on
a heat-affected zone.
4.3.2 Base Metal Cracks

 Base metal cracking can usually be reduced

or eliminated by one of the following:
 Controlling the cooling rate by preheating
 Controlling heat input
 Using the correct electrode
4.4.0 Incomplete joint
Penetration
 Incomplete joint penetration occurs when the
filler metal fails to penetrate and fuse with an
area of the weld joint.
 Insufficient heat at the root of the joint is a
frequent cause of the incomplete joint
penetration.
 Improper joint design is another cause of
incomplete joint penetration.
4.4.0 Incomplete joint
Penetration
4.5.0 Incomplete Fusion

 Incomplete fusion is the failure of a welding

process to fuse layers of weld metal or weld
metal and base metal.
 Incomplete fusion may occur at any point in a
groove or fillet weld.
 Causes for incomplete fusion include:
 Insufficient heat as a result of low welding current
 Wrong size or type of electrode
 Contamination
 Improper joint design
 Inadequate gas shielding
4.5.0 Incomplete Fusion
4.6.0 Undercut

 Undercut is a groove melted into the base

metal beside the weld.
 It is the result of the arc removing more metal
from the joint face than is replaced by weld
metal.
 Some causes of undercut are:
 Too high weld current
 Arc gap that is too long
 Failing to fill up the crater completely with weld
metal
Weld Flaws
4.7.0 Arc Strikes

 Arc strikes are small, localized points where

surface melting occurs away from the joint.
 Arc strikes can cause hardness zones in the
base metal and can become the starting for
cracking.
 Arc strikes can cause a weld to be
rejected.
4.8.0 Spatter

 Spatter is made up of very fine particles of

metal on the plate surface adjoining the weld
area.
 It usually caused by high current, a long arc,
or improper shielding.
4.9.0 Acceptable and
Unacceptable Weld Profiles
 The profile of a finished weld can affect the
performance of the joint under load as much
as other discontinuities.
 An unacceptable profile could lead to the
formation of discontinuities such as
incomplete fusion or slag inclusions.
4.9.1 Fillet Welds

 A fillet weld is a weld that is approximately

triangular in cross section and is used with T,
lap, and corner joints.
 The size and locations of fillet welds are given
as welding symbols.
 The following terms are used to describe a
fillet weld:
 Weld face – the exposed surface of the weld
 Leg – the distance from the root of the joint to
the toe of a fillet weld
4.9.1 Fillet Welds

 Fillet weld terms continued:

 Weld toe – the junction between the face of a
weld and the base metal
 Weld root – the point shown in cross section at
which the weld metal intersects with the base
metal and extends farthest into the weld joint
 Size – the leg lengths of the largest right triangle
that can be drawn within the cross section of a
filler weld
4.9.1 Fillet Welds

 Welding codes require that filler welds have a

uniform concave or convex face.
 The convexity of a fillet weld or individual
surface bead will be approximately 0.07 times
the actual face width or the width of the
individual surface bead, plus 1/16”.
4.9.1 Fillet Welds
4.9.2 Butt Welds

 Butt welds should be made:

 with slight reinforcement (not exceeding 1/8”)
 A gradual transition to the base metal at each toe
 Butt welds should not have:
 Excessive reinforcement
 Insufficient throat
 Excessive undercut
 overlap
5.0.0 Nondestructive
Examination
 Nondestructive examination (NDE) is a term
used for those inspection methods that allow
materials to be examined without changing
or destroying them.
 Inspectors are trained in the proper test
methods to conduct the examinations.
 Welders should be familiar with basic
nondestructive examination practices.
5.0.0 Nondestructive
Examination
 Some common nondestructive examinations
methods are:
 Visual inspection
 Liquid penetrant inspection
 Magnetic particle inspection
 Radiograph inspection (x-ray)
 Ultrasonic inspection
 Eddy current
 Leak testing
5.1.0 Visual Inspection

 In visual inspection, the surface of the weld

and the base metal are observed for visual
imperfections.
 Visual inspection is the examination method
most commonly used by welders and
inspectors.
 It is the fastest and least expensive method of
examination.
 Visual inspection can detect more than 75%
of discontinuities.
5.1.0 Visual Inspection

 Prior to welding, the base metal should be

examined for conditions that may cause weld
defects.
 Dimensions, including edge preparation,
should be confirmed by measurements.
 Some of the more common welding gauges
used in visual inspections are:
 Undercut gauge
 Butt weld gauge
 Fillet weld gauge
5.1.1 Undercut Gauge

 An undercut gauge is used to measure the

amount of undercut on the base metal.
 Most codes allow for undercut to be no more
than .010” deep (1/32”).
 Two types of undercut gauges currently used
are:
 Bridge cam gauge
 V-WAC gauge
5.1.1 Undercut Gauge
5.1.2 Butt Weld
Reinforcement Gauge
 Is used to measure the size of a fillet weld or
the reinforcement of a butt weld.
 Be sure to read the correct scale for the
measurement being taken.
5.1.3 Fillet Weld Blade
Gauge Set
 The fillet weld blade gauge set has seven
individual blade gauges for measuring convex
and concave fillet welds.
 The seven blades can measure eleven weld
sizes: 1/8”, 3/16”, ¼”, 5/16”, 3/8”, 7/16”, ½”,
5/8”, ¾”, 7/8” and 1”
5.1.3 Fillet Weld Blade
Gauge Set
Answer review questions 1 - 9

END OF SESSION 1
5.2.0 Liquid Penetrate
Inspection
 Liquid penetrant inspection (PT) is a nondestructive
method for locating defects that are open to the
surface.
 A penetrating liquid, usually red in color, is applied to
the surface of the weld.
 Any discontinuity will draw the liquid into it.
 A developer, usually white, is then applied over the
weld.
 If the discontinuity is significant, the red penetrant
will bleed through the developer.
 The most common defects found using this process
are surface cracks.
5.2.0 Liquid Penetrate
Inspection (pg. 4.17)
5.3.0 Magnetic Particle
Inspection
 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT) uses
electricity to magnetize the weld.
 Metal particles are sprinkled onto the weld
surface.
 If there are defects, the metal particles will
group into a pattern around the defect.
 The defect can be identified by the shape ,
width, and height of the particle pattern.
5.3.0 Magnetic Particle
Inspection
5.3.0 Magnetic Particle
Inspection
 The disadvantage is that the material has to
be capable of being magnetized.
 Also, the inspector must be skilled in
interpreting indications.
 A rough surface can interfere with the results.
 Defects can only be detected near the
surface.
5.4.0 Radiograph

 Radiograph (RT) is a nondestructive examination

method that uses radiation (x-rays or gamma
rays) to penetrate the weld and produce an
image on film.
 When a joint is radiographed, the radiation
source is placed on one side of the weld and the
film on the other.
 Radiograph should only be used and interpreted
by a trained, qualified personnel.
 Radiograph can produce a visible image of weld
discontinuities, both surface and subsurface.
5.4.0 Radiograph
5.4.1 Radiograph

 The advantages of radiograph are:

 The film gives a permanent record of the weld
quality
 The entire thickness can be examined
 Can be used on all types of metal
 The disadvantages are:
 It is slow
 Expensive
 Radiation is a type of hazard
 Some joints are inaccessible
5.5.0 Ultrasonic Inspection

 The term ultrasonic indicates that these

frequencies are above those heard by human
ear.
 Ultrasonic inspection (UT) is a nondestructive
examination method that uses soundwave
vibrations to find defects in the weld
material.
 The waves are passed through the material
being tested and are reflected back by any
density change caused by a defect.
5.5.0 Ultrasonic Inspection

 Ultrasonic examination can be used to detect:

 Cracks
 Laminations
 Pores
 Slag inclusions
 Incomplete fusion
 Incomplete joint penetration
5.5.0 Ultrasonic Inspection

 Advantages of Ultrasonic inspection are:

 Finds defects throughout the material
 Used on material that cannot be radiographed
 Nonhazardous to personnel and equipment
 Disadvantages of Ultrasonic inspection are:
 Requires a high degree of skill to interpret
 Very small or thin weldments are difficult to
inspect
5.6.0 Electromagnetic
Inspection (Eddy Current)
 Eddy current used electromagnetic energy to
detect defects in the joint.
 An alternating current coil is placed on or
around the part being tested.
 The coil produces a current in the metal
through induction.
 A discontinuity in the test joint will interrupt
the flow of the eddy current.
 The eddy current change can be observed on
a oscilloscope.
5.6.0 Electromagnetic
Inspection (Eddy Current)
 Advantages of Eddy Current are:
 Very useful in inspecting circular parts, such as
pipe and tubing
 Disadvantages of Eddy Current are:
 The current decrease with depth, so defects
farther from the surface may go undetected
 Accuracy depends on calibration of equipment
and the inspector’s skill
5.7.0 Leak Test

 Leak test is used to determine the ability of a

pipe or vessel to contain gas or liquid.
 Test methods vary depending on the
application of the weldment.
 A method called vacuum box test is used to
test a vessel where only one side of the weld
is accessible.
 A leak is detected by the presence of bubbles.
6.0.0 Destructive Testing

 Destructive testing is so called because the

test sample is destroyed or damaged in the
testing process.
 Examples of destructive test commonly used
are:
 Tensile test
 Hardiness test
 Impact test
 Soundness test
6.0.0 Destructive Testing

 Tensile test
 A sample weld is placed in a tensile test machine
and pulled until it breaks
 The test is performed to determine specific
characteristics of the weldment
 Such as strength and ductility
 Hardness test
 Is done by using a penetrating device that leaves
an indention in the weld sample
 The indention is measured to determine hardness
6.0.0 Destructive Testing

 Impact test
 The ability of a weld to withstand in impact, or
toughness, is measured by this test.
 A notch of a specified size is made on the sample
weld
 Then the weld is struck by a pendulum-type
machine that simulates a heavy hammer blow.
6.0.0 Destructive Testing
6.0.0 Destructive Testing

 Soundness test
 Three types of soundness test – bend, nick break, and fillet
weld
 Bend test
 Is the most commonly used test to determine the
qualification of a welder or welding procedure
 The sample weld is bent into a U-shape with a device called
a jig.
 The bending action places stress on the weld metal and
reveals any discontinuities.
 The bend is then inspected for weld defects.
 Guided bend test are used to evaluate groove welds on
plate and pipe.
 Three type of test performed on the jig: root, face, and side
6.0.0 Destructive Testing
6.0.0 Destructive Testing

 Nick-break test
 Used primarily in the pipeline industry
 The specimen is saw-cut so it will break in a specific
place.
 Then it is broken, and the weld is examined for
defects.
 Fillet weld break test
 A fillet weld is made on one side of a T joint
 Stress is then applied to the T joint until the weld
breaks
 The weld is then examined for defects.
Break Time

 Take a 15 min. break

7.0.0 Welder Performance
Qualification Tests
 The purpose of the welder performance
qualification test is to measure the
proficiency of individual welders.
 Codes require that welders take a test to
qualify to perform a welding procedure.
7.1.0 Welding Positions
Qualifications
 The welder is qualified by welding positions.
 The qualification tests are designed to
measure the welder’s ability to make groove
or fillet welds in different positions in
accordance with the applicable code.
 Each welding position is designated by a
number and a letter.
 (1G,2G,3G,4G,5G,6G,1F,2F,3F,4F)
 This system is standard for all codes.
7.1.0 Welding Positions
Qualifications

Plate Weld Positions

7.1.0 Welding Positions
Qualifications

Pipe Welding Positions

7.1.0 Welding Positions
Qualifications
 A welder who qualifies in one position does
not automatically qualify to weld in all
positions.
 Qualifying for pipe will qualify a welder for
plate in certain codes.
 Qualifying under one code does not qualify a
welder under another code.
7.2.0 AWS Structural Steel
Code
 AWS D1.1 code provides information concerning
the qualification of weld procedures, welders,
and welding operation for the fabrication in
building and bridge construction.
 The mild steel electrodes used in SMAW are
classified by F numbers (F1,F2,F3,&F4).
 Qualification with and electrode in a particular F-
number will qualify the welder with all electrodes
in that classification and in lower F-number
groups.(table 1, pg. 6.26)
7.2.0 AWS Structural Steel
Code
 Material thickness is an essential variable in
qualification test under AWS code.
 Plate test qualify the welder only up to twice the
thickness of the test piece or unlimited thickness
depending of the material thickness of the test
plate.
 A typical AWS welder qualification test is a V-
groove weld with metal backing in the 3G and 4G
positions using an F4 electrode (7018).
 Passing this test qualifies the welder to weld
with F4 or lower electrodes and make groove
and fillet welds in all positions.
7.2.0 AWS Structural Steel
Code

Typical AWS Plate Test

7.3.0 ASME Code

 Welders who are required to weld to ASME

code must qualify in accordance with Section
IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
 The typical ASME welder qualification test is
to weld pipe in the 6G position using an open
root.
 Passing a 6G pipe test qualifies the welder to
weld pipe in all positions and plate in all
positions (fillet and groove).
7.3.0 ASME Code

Typical ASME Pipe Test – 6G

7.4.0 Welder Qualification
Test
 A welder becomes qualified by successfully
completing a weld made in accordance with a
WPS.
 Passing a groove weld test permits a welder
to weld groove welds and fillet welds.
7.4.1 Making the Test Weld

 Qualifications tests are designed to

determine the capability of welders, but
some welders have failed for reasons not
related to their welding ability.
 This is due to carelessness in the application
of the weld and in the preparation of the test
specimen.
 It is important to note prior to welding where
the test strips will be cut from the weld
coupon.
7.4.2 Removing Test
Specimens
 There are specific locations where test strips
are cut from the test pipe or plate.
 For material 3/8” thick and under, a face bend
and a root bend are required.
 For material over 3/8”, two side bends are
required.
 For pipe welded in the 5G or 6G positions ,
four specimens are required.
 Two face bends
 Two root bends
7.4.2 Removing Test
Specimens
7.4.2 Removing Test
Specimens
7.4.3 Preparing the
Specimens for Testing
 Poor specimen preparation can cause a sound
weld to fail.
 To properly prepare the test strip:
 Grind the surface to a smooth finish.
 All grinding marks must be lengthwise on the sample.
 Remove any face or root reinforcement from the
weldment.
 Round the edges to at smooth 1/16” radius.
 Do not water quench test strips when grinding.
 Quenching may create small surface cracks to become
larger during the bend test.
7.4.3 Preparing the
Specimens for Testing
7.4.3 Preparing the
Specimens for Testing
 The criteria for acceptance by AWS D1.1 is that
the surface shall contain no discontinuities that
exceed:
 1/8” measured in any direction
 3/8”-the sum of all discontinuities exceeding 1/32”,but
less than 1/8”
 ¼”-maximum corner crack, except when the corner
crack results from visible slag inclusions
 A corner crack exceeding ¼” with no slag inclusions or
fusion discontinuities can be discarded and a
replacement strip cut from the original weld test
7.4.4 Welder Qualification
Limits
 Welders may retest if they initially fail the test.
 An immediate retest consists of two welds for
each type failed.
 All test specimen must pass this retest
 A welder may have to retest if they have not
used the specific weld process for a certain time
period
 A welder may be required to retest if there is
reason to question the welder’s ability to make
weld that meet code.
8.2.0 Chain of Command

 A welder should follow the chain of command

 Some examples when a welder should bypass
the chain of command:
 When you are directed to perform an unsafe act
 When you are directed to perform a weld that you
are not qualified for
 Always try to resolve problems with your
immediate supervisor before bypassing the
chain of command. (note pg. 6.32)
Summary

 Quality is everyone’s responsibility.

 Keeping quality in mind as you perform each
step of your job will help you identify and
correct small problems before they become
large problems
 Weld codes set the standard for what is a
quality weld
 A weld, good or bad, will be seen long after
the job is done.
Review Questions

 Answer review questions 10 – 15

 Answer trade terms 1 - 11