Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter Outline
1) Overview
2) Primary versus Secondary Data
3) Advantages & Uses of Secondary Data
4) Disadvantages of Secondary Data
4-3
Chapter Outline
5) Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data
i. Specifications: Methodology Used to
Collect the Data
ii. Error: Accuracy of the Data
iii. Currency: When the Data Were Collected
iv. Objective(s): The Purpose for Which the
Data Were Collected
v. Nature: The Content of the Data
vi. Dependability: Overall, How Dependable
are the Data
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Chapter Outline
6) Classification of Secondary Data
7) Internal Secondary Data
8) Published External Secondary Sources
i. General Business Sources
a. Guides
b. Directories
c. Indexes
d. Non-governmental Statistical Data
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Chapter Outline
ii. Government Sources Censu
s
a. Census Data Data
Chapter Outline
11) Syndicated Data from Households
i. Surveys
a. Psychographics & Lifestyles
b. Advertising Evaluation
c. General Surveys
d. Uses of Surveys
e. Advantages & Disadvantages of Surveys
ii. Panels
a. Purchase Panels
b. Media Panels
c. Uses of Panels
d. Advantages & Disadvantages of Panels
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Chapter Outline
12) Electronic Scanner Services
i. Volume Tracking Data
a. Scanner Diary Panels
b. Scanner Diary Panels with Cable TV
c. Uses of Scanner Services
d. Advantages & Disadvantages
13) Syndicated Data from Institutions
i. Retailers & Wholesalers
a. Uses of Audit Data
b. Advantages & Disadvantages of Audit Data
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Chapter Outline
ii. Industry Services
a. Uses of Industry Services
b. Advantages & Disadvantages of
Industry Services
14) Combining Information from Different
Sources: Single-Source Data
15) Applications of Secondary Data
i. Computer Mapping
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Chapter Outline
16) International Marketing Research
17) Ethics in Marketing Research
18) Internet and Computer Applications
19) Focus on Burke
20) Summary
21) Key Terms & Concepts
4-10
Data
Table 4.1
Data
Specifications: Methodology Used to
Collect the Data
Error: Accuracy of the Data
Currency: When the Data Were
Collected
Objective(s): The Purpose for Which
the Data Were Collected
Nature: The Content of the Data
Dependability: Overall, How
Dependable Are the Data
Criteria for Evaluating Secondary 4-14
Data
Table 4.2
Data
Fig. 4.1
Secondary Data
Internal External
•.Internal
•.External
Internal records in the company comprise information about the product being
researched, its history, company background and history, market share, and
competitor information. These types of information are usually maintained by
the marketing department, sales department, or a corporate cell for marketing
intelligence in the company.
External information sources include syndicated reports such as retail sales data,
or market share data, or industry analyses. Some of this information may be
available from public sources such as business newspapers , magazines, industry
associations or trade bodies, or the net.
Slide 2
There are several computer-based data sources which provide on a sale and
subscription basis, updated information on financial and sales data on all
publicly listed companies. Now, some of this data is available on the
internet, particularly industry analyses.
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Slide 3
The most useful way to gather relevant secondary data on a given industry is to
have a cell within the company to monitor and keep cuttings from business
magazines such as Advertising and Marketing, Business India, Business Today
and Business World.
This can be supplemented by newspaper reports from The Economic Times,
Business Line or other business dailies. Over a period of a few years, this method
ensures that we can easily look back and get a perspective on our brands, industry,
competitors etc.
This also creates reference material for new employees or trainees who are hired to
do their internship or summer projects in the company. It is now possible to keep
electronic clippings from the websites of many of these newspapers and
magazines.
The marketing research agency can also use this gathered material as background
information, and quickly launch into designing and conducting the primary
research based on what is known.
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Slide 4 Disadvantages of Secondary Data
•.It may be outdated. We may have cuttings which are 2 years old, about
consumer preferences, and these may have changed over time.
•.It may be done for a different purpose and therefore be slanted or biased. It is
important to note who has collected the data, and for what purpose, before making
a judgement on its usefulness.
•.The units of data aggregation may be different from what we need. For
example, we may want to know reactions from different sexes (male and female
separately), and these may not be reported separately. Or, only regionwise data
may be reported, not centre-wise or citywise. Or, the way income groups are
formed may be different from what we want to study.
4-20
Slide 5
In spite of some obvious limitations, many types of secondary data serve the useful
purposes of
In the age of the internet, it is worthwhile to at least download and look at what is
available on the product and industry, before venturing out into the field for doing
primary research.
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house wares)
Sales by specific stores
I. Demographic Data
- Identification (name, address, telephone)
- Sex
- Marital status
- Names of family members
- Age (including ages of family members)
- Income
- Occupation
- Number of children present
- Home ownership
- Length of residence
- Number and make of cars owned
Type of Individual/Household Level Data
4-23
Sources
Fig. 4.2
Published
Secondary Data
Databases
Fig. 4.3
Computerized
Databases
Sources
Guides
An excellent source of standard or recurring information
Directories
Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect
specific data
Examples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations
Indices
Helpful in locating information on a particular topic in several
different publications
Classification of Computerized 4-28
Databases
Bibliographic databases are
composed of citations to articles.
Numeric databases contain numerical
and statistical information.
Full-text databases contain the
complete text of the source documents
comprising the database.
Directory databases provide
information on individuals, organizations,
and services.
Special-purpose databases provide
specialized information.
4-29
Syndicated Services
Companies that collect and sell common
pools of data of known commercial value
designed to serve a number of clients.
Syndicated sources can be classified based
on the unit of measurement
(households/consumers or institutions).
Household/consumer data may be obtained
from surveys, diary panels, or electronic
scanner services.
Institutional data may be obtained from
retailers, wholesalers, or industrial firms.
A Classification of Syndicated 4-30
Services
Fig. 4.4
Unit of
Measuremen
t
Households/
Institutions
Consumers
4-31
Panels
Electronic
Purchase Media scanner services
Audits
Single-Source Data
Single-source data provide integrated information on
household variables, including media consumption and
purchases, and marketing variables, such as product
sales, price, advertising, promotion, and in-store
marketing effort.
Data
Fig. 5.1
Marketing Research Data
Descriptive Causal
Research
Table 5.1
Projective
Depth Interviews Techniques
Focus Groups
Laddering
In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from
product characteristics to user characteristics. This
technique allows the researcher to tap into the
consumer's network of meanings.
Symbolic Analysis
Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic
meaning of objects by comparing them with their opposites.
The logical opposites of a product that are investigated are:
non-usage of the product, attributes of an imaginary “non-
product,” and opposite types of products.
Techniques
An unstructured, indirect form of questioning
that encourages respondents to project their
underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or
feelings regarding the issues of concern.
In projective techniques, respondents are asked
to interpret the behavior of others.
In interpreting the behavior of others,
respondents indirectly project their own
motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into
the situation.
4-52
Word Association
In word association, respondents are presented with a
list of words, one at a time and asked to respond to
each with the first word that comes to mind. The words
of interest, called test words, are interspersed
throughout the list which also contains some neutral, or
filler words to disguise the purpose of the study.
Responses are analyzed by calculating:
Word Association
EXAMPLE
STIMULUS MRS. M MRS. C
washday everyday ironing
fresh and sweet clean
pure air soiled
scrub don't; husband does clean
filth this neighborhood dirt
bubbles bath soap and water
Completion Techniques
In Sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete
sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are
asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.
Completion Techniques
In story completion, respondents are given
part of a story – enough to direct attention to a
particular topic but not to hint at the ending.
They are required to give the conclusion in
their own words.
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Construction Techniques
With a picture response, the respondents are asked
to describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as
unusual events. The respondent's interpretation of the
pictures gives indications of that individual's
personality.
In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a
specific situation related to the problem. The
respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon
character might say in response to the comments of
another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to
administer and analyze than picture response
techniques.
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A Cartoon Test
Figure 5.4
Sears
Let’s see if we
can pick up
some house
wares at Sears
4-58
Expressive Techniques
In expressive techniques, respondents are
presented with a verbal or visual situation and
asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other
people to the situation.
Techniques
They may elicit responses that subjects
would be unwilling or unable to give if
they knew the purpose of the study.
Techniques
Suffer from many of the disadvantages of
unstructured direct techniques, but to a
greater extent.
Require highly trained interviewers.
Skilled interpreters are also required to
analyze the responses.
There is a serious risk of interpretation
bias.
They tend to be expensive.
May require respondents to engage in
unusual behavior.
Guidelines for Using Projective 4-61
Techniques
Projective techniques should be used
because the required information
cannot be accurately obtained by direct
methods.
Projective techniques should be used
for exploratory research to gain initial
insights and understanding.
Given their complexity, projective
techniques should not be used naively.
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Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth Interviews,
and Projective Techniques
Table 5.3
Groups
Geographical constraints are removed and
time constraints are lessened.
Groups
Methods
Fig. 6.1
Survey
Methods
Traditional Computer-
Mail Mail
Telephone Assisted
Interview Panel
Telephone
Interviewing
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Some Decisions Related to the Mail Interview
Package
Table 6.1
Outgoing Envelope
Outgoing envelope: size, color, return address
Postage Method of addressing
Cover Letter
Sponsorship Type of appeal Postscript
Personalization Signature
Questionnaire
Length Size Layout Format
Content Reproduction Color Respondent
anonymity
Return Envelope
Type of envelope Postage
Incentives
Monetary versus non-monetary Prepaid versus promised
amount
4-67
Methods
Flexibility of Data Collection
The flexibility of data collection is determined primarily
Methods
Sample Control
Sample control is the ability of the survey mode to reach the
units specified in the sample effectively and efficiently.
Two-Stage Procedure
The first stage consists of selecting an exchange and
telephone number from the directory. In the second stage,
the last three digits of the selected number are replaced
with a three-digit random number between 000 and 999.
Cluster 1
Selected exchange: 636
Selected number: 404-636-3230
Replace the last three digits (230) with randomly selected
389 to form 404-636-3389.
Repeat this process until the desired number of telephone
numbers from this cluster is obtained.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey 4-72
Methods
Response Rate
Survey response rate is broadly defined as the percentage
of the total attempted interviews that are completed.
Perceived Anonymity
Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents'
perceptions that their identities will not be discerned by
the interviewer or the researcher.
Social Desirability/Sensitive Information
Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to
give answers that are socially acceptable, whether or not
they are true.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey 4-73
Methods
Potential for Interviewer Bias
The extent of the interviewer's role determines
Speed
The total time taken for administering the
Cost
The total cost of administering the survey and
Methods
Table 6.2
Mall-
Criteria Phone/ In-Home Intercept Mail Mail
CATI Interviews Interviews CAPI Surveys Panels E-Mail Internet
Flexibility of data Moderate High High Moderate Low Low Low Moderate
collection to high to high to high
Diversity of questions Low High High High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
to high
Use of physical stimuli Low Moderate High High Moderate Moderate Low Moderate
to high
Sample control Moderate Potentially Moderate Moderate Low Moderate Low Low to
to high high to high moderate
Control of data collection Moderate Moderate High High Low Low Low Low
environment to high
Control of field force Moderate Low Moderate Moderate High High High High
Quantity of data Low High Moderate Moderate Moderate High Moderate Moderate
Response rate Moderate High High High Low Moderate Low Very
Low
Perceived anonymity of Moderate Low Low Low High High Moderate High
the respondent
Social desirability Moderate High High Moderate Low Low Moderate Low
to High
Obtaining sensitive High Low Low Low to High Moderate Moderate High
information moderate to High
Potential for interviewer Moderate High High Low None None None None
bias
Speed High Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Low to High Very
to high to high moderate high
Cost Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Low to Low Low
to high to high moderate
Structured versus Unstructured
4-75
Observation
For structured observation, the
researcher specifies in detail what is to be
observed and how the measurements are
to be recorded, e.g., an auditor performing
inventory analysis in a store.
Methods
Fig. 6.3
Classifying
Observation
Methods
Observation Methods
Personal Observation
Mechanical Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.
the AC Nielsen audimeter
Pupilometers (measure the change in diameter of the pupils of the respondents eye)
Audit
The researcher collects data by
examining physical records or
performing inventory analysis.
Data are collected personally by the
researcher.
The data are based upon counts, usually
of physical objects.
Retail and wholesale audits conducted
by marketing research suppliers were
discussed in the context of syndicated
data in Chapter 4
Observation Methods
4-82
Content Analysis
The objective, systematic, and quantitative
description of the manifest content of a
communication.
The unit of analysis may be words, characters
(individuals or objects), themes (propositions),
space and time measures (length or duration of
the message), or topics (subject of the
message).
Analytical categories for classifying the units
are developed and the communication is
broken down according to prescribed rules.
Observation Methods
4-83
Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past
behavior.
Observation
They permit measurement of actual
behavior rather than reports of intended or
preferred behavior.
There is no reporting bias, and potential
bias caused by the interviewer and the
interviewing process is eliminated or
reduced.
Certain types of data can be collected only
by observation.
If the observed phenomenon occurs
frequently or is of short duration,
observational methods may be cheaper
and faster than survey methods.
Relative Disadvantages of 4-86
Observation
The reasons for the observed behavior may not be
determined since little is known about the underlying
motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
Selective perception (bias in the researcher's
perception) can bias the data.
Observational data are often time-consuming and
expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of
behavior.
In some cases, the use of observational methods may
be unethical, as in observing people without their
knowledge or consent.
Research
Table 6.4
Criteria Telephone Personal Mail Electronic
High sample control + + - -
Difficulty in locating + - + +
respondents at home
Inaccessibility of homes + - + +
Unavailability of a large + - + +
pool of trained interviewers
Large population in rural areas - + - -
Unavailability of maps + - + +
Unavailability of current - + - +
telephone directory
Unavailability of mailing lists + + - +
Low penetration of telephones - + + -
Lack of an efficient postal system + + - +
Low level of literacy - + - -
Face-to-face communication culture - + - -
Poor access to computers & Internet ? + ? -
Note: A (+) denotes an advantage, and a (–) denotes a disadvantage.
The NYT on the Web: A New Way
4-88
To Target Customers
Concept of Causality
A statement such as "X causes Y " will have the
following meaning to an ordinary person and to a
scientist.
____________________________________________________
Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning
____________________________________________________
X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of
possible causes of Y.
High Low
Education, X
Education
High 122 (61%) 78 (39%) 200 (100%) High 241 (80%) 59 (20%) 300
171 (57%) 129 (43%) 300 (100%) Low 151 (76%) 49 (24%) 200
Low
4-93
Experimental Design
An experimental design is a set of
procedures specifying
Validity in Experimentation
Internal validity refers to whether the
manipulation of the independent variables or
treatments actually caused the observed
effects on the dependent variables. Control
of extraneous variables is a necessary
condition for establishing internal validity.
External validity refers to whether the
cause-and-effect relationships found in the
experiment can be generalized. To what
populations, settings, times, independent
variables and dependent variables can the
results be projected?
4-96
Extraneous Variables
History refers to specific events that are external to
the experiment but occur at the same time as the
experiment. (The longer the time interval between
observations, the greater the possibility that history will
confound an experiment of this type.)
Maturation (MA) refers to changes in the test units
themselves that occur with the passage of time.
( Maturation takes place when people become older,
more experienced, tired, bored, or uninterested)
Testing effects are caused by the process of
experimentation. Typically, these are the effects on the
experiment of taking a measure on the dependent
variable before and after the presentation of the
treatment.
The main testing effect (MT) occurs when a prior
observation affects a latter observation.(Post Treatment
attitude for product may be affected by the pre
treatment when the advertisement was shown)
4-97
Extraneous Variables
In the interactive testing effect (IT), a prior measurement
affects the test unit's response to the independent variable.(
after seeing the adv. when people are asked to indicate their
attitudes toward a brand, they become sensitized to that
brand and become more likely to pay attention to the test
commercial than people who were not included in the
experiment.
Instrumentation (I) refers to changes in the measuring
instrument, in the observers or in the scores themselves.
Statistical regression effects (SR) occur when test units
with extreme scores move closer to the average score
during the course of the experiment.
Selection bias (SB) refers to the improper assignment of
test units to treatment conditions.
Mortality (MO) refers to the loss of test units while the
experiment is in progress.
4-98
Designs
Pre-experimental designs do not
employ randomization procedures to
control for extraneous factors: the one-
shot case study, the one-group pretest-
posttest design, and the static-group.
In true experimental designs, the
researcher can randomly assign test
units to experimental groups and
treatments to experimental groups: the
pretest-posttest control group design,
the posttest-only control group design,
and the Solomon four-group design.
A Classification of Experimental 4-100
Designs
Quasi-experimental designs result
when the researcher is unable to achieve
full manipulation of scheduling or
allocation of treatments to test units but
can still apply part of the apparatus of
true experimentation: time series and
multiple time series designs.
A statistical design is a series of basic
experiments that allows for statistical
control and analysis of external variables:
randomized block design, Latin square
design, and factorial designs.
A Classification of Experimental 4-101
Designs
Figure 7.1
Experimental Designs
Design
01 X 02
Design
EG : R X 01
CG : R 02
01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010
Statistical Designs
Statistical designs consist of a series of basic
experiments that allow for statistical control and
analysis of external variables and offer the following
advantages:
Treatment Groups
Block Store Commercial Commercial
Commercial
Number Patronage A B C
1 Heavy A B C
2 Medium A B C
3 Low A B C
4 None A B C
4-112
Heavy B A C
Medium C B
A
Low and none A C
B
4-114
Factorial Design
Is used to measure the effects of two
or more independent variables at
various levels.
A factorial design may also be
conceptualized as a table.
In a two-factor design, each level of
one variable represents a row and
each level of another variable
represents a column.
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Factorial Design
Table 7.6
Amount of Humor
Amount of Store No Medium High
Information Humor Humor Humor
Low A B C
Medium D E F
High G H I
Laboratory versus Field 4-116
Experiments
Table 7.7
Limitations of Experimentation
Experiments can be time consuming, particularly if the
researcher is interested in measuring the long-term
effects.
Experiments are often expensive. The requirements of
experimental group, control group, and multiple
measurements significantly add to the cost of research.
Experiments can be difficult to administer. It may be
impossible to control for the effects of the extraneous
variables, particularly in a field environment.
Competitors may deliberately contaminate the results of
a field experiment.
Selecting a Test-Marketing 4-118
Strategy
Competition
-ve
National Introduction
Markets
To Target Customers
Sources
Fig. 4.5