Coal & Coalification

Presented by: Shahzaib Sheikh

Registration No: 04111513006
AGE &
OCCURRENCE OF
COAL
Introductio
n
 Coal is a unique type of rock in the geological column, with a wide
range of physical and chemical properties.
 The episodes of coal development in the geological column (e.g.
Carboniferous, Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene Periods) are given
together with principal coal occurrences worldwide.
 The principal uses of traded coals worldwide is for electricity
generation and steel manufacture, with other industrial users and
domestic consumption making up the remainder.
 In most industrial countries, coal has historically been a key source of
energy and a major contributor to economic growth.
 Coals are the result of the
accumulation of vegetable debris in a
specialized environment of deposition.
 Such accumulations have been
affected by syn-sedimentary and post-
sedimentary influences to produce
coals of differing rank and differing
degrees of structural complexity,
the two being closely interlinked.
Origin of
Coal
 Although land plants first developed in the
Lower Palaeozoic Era, and coal deposits of
Devonian age are the earliest known.
 It was not until the Upper Palaeozoic Era,
particularly the Carboniferous and Permian
Periods, that sufficient plant cover was
established and preserved to produce
significant coal accumulations.
 Within this geological age range there have
been three major episodes of coal
accumulation.
 The figure below shows the worldwide
distribution of world coal deposits along with
their age and locations.
 It took place during the Late Carboniferous
to Early Permian periods.
 Coals formed at this time now form the bulk
of the black coal reserves of the world,
and are represented on all of the continents.  First
 The coals are usually of high rank and may
have undergone significant structural change.
Episode of
 In the Northern hemisphere these deposits Coal
are found in Canada and the US, through
Europe and Common Wealth Independent Accumulati
States (CIS) to the far East.
on
 In the Southern hemisphere coals of
Gondwanaland are present in South America,
Africa, the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast
Asia, Australia, and Antarctica.
 Second
 The second episode occurred during
the Jurassic–Cretaceous period, and
Episode of
coals of this age are present
in Canada, the United States, China
Coal
and the CIS. Accumulati
on
 The third major episode occurred during
the Paleogene–Neogene Periods. Coals formed
during this period range from lignite to
anthracite.
 Paleogene–Neogene coals form the bulk of the Third
world’s brown coal reserves, but also make up
a significant percentage of black coals Episode of
currently mined.
 They are characterized by thick seams and
Coal
have often undergone minimal structural
change.
Accumulati
 Paleogene–Neogene coals are also found on
worldwide, and are the focus of current
exploration and production as the traditional
Carboniferous coalfields become depleted or
geologically too difficult to mine.
 During the Carboniferous Period, in the
northern part of Pangaea (Laurasia), Floras in
the coal basins of western and
central Europe, eastern United States Different
and CIS were equatorial in nature and
tropical peat mires containing a flora
Climates
of Lepidodendron, Sigillaria and
Chordaites were characteristic of coal
of
deposition. Geological
 The figure for the Carboniferous Period
is illustrated below. Ages
 The climate changed during the
Permian Period and coal deposition
ceased in the northern area. 
 In the southern part of
Pangaea (Gondwanaland), covering
what is now South America, southern
Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica,
peat mires formed under cooler more
temperate conditions, characterized
by the Glossopteris flora.
 The figure is illustrated below of the
coal deposits.
 After the breakup of Pangaea, coal deposition
continued through the Triassic, Jurassic and
Cretaceous Periods and the Paleogene–Neogene
Periods, where another change in the floral
types took place, heralding the onset of
Angiosperm floras.
 These changes in vegetation type are reflected
in the type and proportion of maceral types
present in the coals. 
 The Laurasian coals are rich in the
vitrinite group of macerals whereas the
Gondwana coals have a much higher
percentage of the inertinite group of
macerals with varying amounts of vitrinite.
 Gondwana coals have a higher content of
mineral matter but lower sulfur contents than
the Laurasian coals.
Areas of Coal Deposition in Jurassic-Cretaceous Times
Areas of Coal Depositon in Paleogene-Neogene Times
 The Paleogene–Neogene coals are, for
the most part, lignites and are found
worldwide, although in some
areas they have undergone severe
temperature and pressure changes
which has produced higher rank coal,
ranging from subbituminous to high
volatile bituminous in areas such as
Indonesia, Colombia and Venezuela.
Stratigraph
y
 The age of all the major coal deposits is well
documented, and the stratigraphy of each
deposit has been studied in detail.
 This is particularly true for those deposits
that have an economic potential.
 The origin of coal is characterized by deposition
in foredeep and cratonic basins.
 The essentially non-marine nature of these
coal-bearing sequences has meant that
detailed chronostratigraphy has often been
difficult to apply due to the lack of
biostratigraphic evidence.
 The establishment of a stratigraphic framework
for a coal-bearing sequence can be approached
in two ways, an examination of the
sedimentary sequence in which the coals
occur, and a detailed study of the coals
themselves.
 It is usual to apply a combination of
chronostratigraphy (where possible) and
lithostratigraphy for individual coal deposits. 
 This may be supported by geophysics
and detailed sedimentological studies.  
 The combination of all these studies is the
basis on which to build the geological model
and to develop a three-dimensional picture of
the coal deposit.
 Age and
Geophysical
Distribution
of Coal
 A brief summary is given of the geographic
distribution of the known coal deposits of the
world. It is designed as a guide to the location
of the principal coalfields throughout the
world. 
 The detailed stratigraphical ages of
the deposits are not given, usually only the
geological period in which they were formed.
 The distribution of coal deposits throughout
the world are dealt with in nine geographical
regions.
 The coal deposits of the United States
have been divided into six separate
areas or provinces, based on
the findings of the US Geological
Survey given in the figure below, while North
the largest coal-bearing region is
located in western Canada, stretching America
from south Saskatchewan
across Alberta into British Columbia.
 Coal deposits of Palaeozoic
(Carboniferous), Mesozoic and
Cenozoic (Paleogene–Neogene) age
are developed in a series of basins
that stretch from the United
Kingdom in the west to Turkey in the
east. The full range of black and brown
coals are present, and all of the most
Europe
accessible deposits have been worked
extensively over the past 150 years.
  Those European countries with
recorded coal deposits are listed
alphabetically and shown on map.
  Albania 
 Austria
 Belgium
 Bosnia

List of Coal  Bulgaria

 Czech Republic
Producing  Denmark
European  France
Countries  Germany
 Georgia
 Greece
 Holland
  Hungary
 Ireland
 Italy
 Kosovo
 Montenegro
List of Coal  Poland
Producing  Portugal

European  Romania
 Serbia
Countries  Spain
 Spitzbergen 
 Turkey
 United Kingdom
 The occurrences of black coal in Africa are: (i)
those deposits of Carboniferous age found on the
northern coast, in Morocco in the west and Egypt
in the east; and (ii), more importantly, the
widespread Karroo deposits of Late
Carboniferous–Permian age, which are found
throughout central and southern Africa. 
 The Karoo sequences were deposited on the
Gondwana supercontinent which split apart Africa
in the Mesozoic Period, hence the similarities of
African Gondwana coals with those of India and
South America.
 Brown coals of Paleogene–Neogene age are
present, but in Africa it is the black coals that are
of prime interest.
 The principal coal occurrences are shown.
  Angola

 Botswana
 Cameroon
 Egypt
List of Coal  Ethiopia

Producing  Malagasy Republic

 Malawi
Countries  Mali
in Africa  Morocco
 Mozambique
 Nambia
 Niger
  Nigeria
 South Africa
List of Coal  Swaziland
Producing  Tanzania
Countries  Zaire
in Africa  Zambia
 Zimbabwe
 Coal deposits are distributed
throughout Central and South America
and make up a significant proportion
of world reserves of black coal. 
 The majority of coals are of Cenozoic
Central &
(Paleogene–Neogene) age. 
South
 Coals of Palaeozoic (Gondwana) age
are present in eastern South America
America, in Brazil and Uruguay, and
Mesozoic coals are found in discrete
deposits throughout the region.
  Argentina
 Bolivia
 Brazil
 Chile
List of Coal  Columbia
Producing
 Costa Rica
Countries in
Central &  Ecuador
South America  Mexico
 Peru
 Uruguay
 Venenzuela
 The CIS is the third largest coal producer in
the world. 
 It has vast reserves of all ranks of coal
stretching across the whole of the country.

Common
 Thick coal-bearing sequences range from
Palaeozoic (Carboniferous–Permian), Mesozoic
(Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous) to Cenozoic in
age. Wealth of
  These are preserved in a series of large
sedimentary basins, which generally become
Independ
younger from west to east. 
ent States
 Most of the older basins are structurally disturbed,
resulting in steeply dipping seams and extensive (CIS)
faulting.
 The potential for production is enormous, however,
geographical position, severe climatic conditions
and poor infrastructure may curtail the
  Kazakhstan
List of Coal
 Russia
Producing
 Tajikistan
Countries
 Ukraine
in CIS
 The Far East region contains 13
countries with known coal deposits. 
 By far the largest of these is

Far East
the Peoples Republic of China, which
has vast resources of all ranks of coal.
  The coals of the Far East range in age
from Palaeozoic to Cenozoic, and all
ranks of coal are present.
  Brunel
 Burma
 Peoples Republic of China
 Indonesia
List of Coal
 Japan
Producing
 Democratic Republic of (North) Korea
Countries in
 Republic of (South) Korea
the Far East
 Laos
 Malaysia
 Mongolia
  Philippines
List of Coal
 Taiwan
Producing
 Thailand
Countries in
 Peoples Republic of Vietnam
the Far East
 Australasia is one of the major coal
producers in the world. 
 The bulk of the coal resources are
located in the eastern part of Australia, Australia
with smaller coal deposits in Western
Australia and New Zealand
List of Coal
 Australia
Producing
 James Row Island (Antarctica)
Countries
in Australia
 The area delineated the Indian
Subcontinent extends from Iran in the
west to Bangladesh in the east. Black
coals are of Palaeozoic (Carboniferous–
Permian), Mesozoic and Cenozoic age.  Indian
 Brown coals are of Cenozoic age.
  Palaeozoic Gondwana coals are found
Subcontine
in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh,
Mesozoic coals are present in
nt
Afghanistan, India, Pakistan and Iran,
and Cenozoic coals are found in all the
countries listed in this region.
  Afghanistan 
List of Coal  Bangladesh
Producing
 India
Countries in
 Iran
Indian
Subcontinent  Pakistan
Coal in Pakistan
 All the principal coalfields in Pakistan
are of Paleogene–Neogene age,
although Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
coals are present.
 The coalfields of economic importance
are situated in three distinct coal
regions, Sindh, Quetta-Kalat and Salt
Range–Makerwal. 
Pakistan
 Most of these coalfields have been
structurally disturbed.
 The central part of Sindh Province
contains the coalfields of Lakhra,
Sonda-Thatta and Meting-Jhimpir.
 Seams are up to 2m in thickness, and the
coal is subbituminous, non-coking with high
sulfur content. 
 In eastern Sindh province, the Thar
Coalfield covers an area of 9000 km2.
 Miocene lignites are low in sulfur and can
be in excess of 30m in thickness.
  This coalfield is targeted to provide fuel for
electricity generation and industrial use.
Pakistan
 The Quetta-Kalat province contains the
coalfields of Sor Range-Daghari, Khost
Sharig-Harnai and Duki-Chamalang. 
 Again the coal is subbituminous with
high ash and sulfur contents.
 The Salt Range–Makerwal province
comprises the coalfields of eastern,
central and western Salt Range, together
with the Makerwal Coalfield to the west of
these. 
 Coals are subbituminous, with high ash Pakistan
and sulfur contents. 
 Overall production is small, the coal being
used chiefly for electricity generation.
THANK YOU!