WASTEWATER TREATMENT /

SANITARY ENGINEERING
UNIT-5
 SEWER APPURTENANCES

• Inlets
• Catch Basins
• Clean Outs
• Manholes
• Lamp Holes
• Flushing Tanks
• Oil and Grease Traps
• Inverted Siphons
• Storm Regulators
Main parts of sewerage system
Locations of Inlets

Max spacing on straight roads: 30 m

 Types of Inlets
Purpose: Interception and collection of sewage
 Catch Basins
Purpose: Collection of sand, grit and debris
 Clean-outs
Purpose: Cleaning of sewer

Ground Level Cover

Cleaning
Pipe

Water is flushed at high speeds (or) flexible rods inserted for cleaning
 Deep Manholes
Purpose: Inspection, Flushing , Cleaning and Ventilation of sewers

Shapes: Circular, Rectangular, or Square

 Deep Manholes: Features and Specifications
• Provided at
– Every change of alignment
– Change of gradient
– Every junction where two or more sewers join
– Change in sewer size
• As per CPHEEO Manual (for straight stretches)
– Diameter: 0.9-1.5m Spacing: 90-150m
– Diameter: 1.5-2.0m Spacing: 150-200m
– Diameter: > 2.0m Spacing: 200-300m
• Classification:
– Shallow : 0.75-0.90 m deep; size: 0.9x0.8m
– Normal: 0.90-1.5 m deep; size: 1.0x1.0m/ 0.9m diameter
– Deep: Usually circular and depth > 1.5m
• Diameter: 1.2m Depth: 2.0-2.3m
• Diameter: 1.5m Depth: 2.3-9.0m
• Diameter: 1.8m Depth: 9.0-14.0m
Position of Manholes
Deep Manholes: IS specifications & Component parts
• IS 4111 (Part-I): 1991 classification
– Shallow: ≤ 2m (= shallow and normal)
– Deep: > 2m
– Depth: ≤ 0.8m Min size: 0.75m x 0.75m
– Depth: 0.8-2.1m Size: 1.2 x 0.9m
– Depth: > 2.1m Size: 1.2 x 0.9m
• Component parts
– Access Shaft
– Working Chamber
– Base and side walls
• Base: Plain CC
• Sidewalls: RCC/Brick masonry
– Bottom or Invert
– Steps
• Cast Iron rings
• Specific spacings
– Cover and Frame
• Cast Iron, Circular/square shape
 Drop Manhole
Purpose: For connecting sewers having a difference in elevation using (i) vertical pipe or (ii)
inclined pipe at 45 degrees thereby avoids unnecessary steep gradient of branch sewer and
reduces cost
 Lamp Hole
Purpose: Inspection by lowering a lamp, Flushing and Ventilation of Sewers
(Currently obsolete)
 Oil and Grease Trap
Purpose: For collection and removal of
oil, grease and fatty material in sewage

Problems of oil and grease:

•Obstruction of flow
•Anaerobic conditions
•Dark appearance
•Sticky flow

Sources of oil and grease:

• Household kitchens
• Hotel kitchens
• Garages
• Automobile repair workshops
• Oil and grease industries
 Flushing Tanks
Hand operated Flushing tanks Automatic Flushing tanks
Water
M source
H

M
H

Lock & Release

Water
source
M
H

Lock & Release Lock & Release

 Inverted Siphon
Purpose: To carry sewer under the obstructions and regain as much elevation as possible
 Storm Regulators
Purpose: Used in combined sewerage systems to permit the diversion of excess
storm water into a nearby stream

Normal flows are diverted to intercepting

sewer and excess flows to stream using an
adjustable plate or opening in the combined
sewer
The excess sewage is allowed to overflow the
combined sewer in manhole to enter into a
channel carrying storm water or directly into a
stream
Storm Regulators

• Siphonic action starts when sewage in the

combined sewer rises above crest level
• Crest level fixed for carrying max DWF
• Mouth of air pipe gets sealed and air
contained in siphon suddenly removed by
the flow when flow reaches above crest and
causes siphonic action
• Automatic, effective and natural process
• Air pipe may get clogged
 Field
Design
of
Sewers
 Design data required for sewer design
Item Item
Line Peak flow, MLD/Lps
D1, D2, …
Location Sewer diameter, mm
Manhole (From-To) Slope of sewer V1,
Slope V2,
RL of Ground at Discharge, Q(full), 1 in …..
starting point Q(act)
Length of section Velocity V (full), V
(act)
Area served (ha) Total fall [dh = (S)(L)]
Increment-Total
Population Invert elevation
Upper end
Lower end Q full (Lps)
Sewage Flow, MLD
Groundwater
infiltration, MLD
Nomenclature of sewers
RL details of sewer section
Layout of Sewers
 Precautions while entering into sewers
• Open cover of manholes on u/s and d/s for atleast 30 min to allow air to flow
• Sheet of paper moistened with lead acetate is exposed for 5 min near sewer
entry. Paper turns black -> H2S gas present

• Minors safety lamp is lowered near sewage level in manhole.

• Flame extinguishes in 5 minutes -> CO2 present
• Lower the minors safety lamp in the upper layers of sewage.
• Flame is filled in the gage cylinder indicates presence of
methane
• A lighted lantern may be lowered down the manhole.
• If it burns brilliantly, oxygen is present
• Workers going into sewers should have ropes tied to their waists. In case of any
problem, thy pull it and rescue can be immediately made
• Smoking is prohibited in sewer pipes
• Workers should be provided with all protective gear
 Ventilation of Sewers
• Purposes
– Continuous air flow Cowl
– Disposal of sewer gases
– Prevention of unpleasant odors
• Methods
– Manhole covers with gratings Gas
Flow
– Use of ventilating columns
– Design of sewers for ½ or 2/3 full
– Self cleansing velocity to be ensured Cover Ground
– House vent and soil pipes at source
– Artificial air blowing to supply O2
– Using blowers to drive out foul gases Connection
to sewer

Ventilating Column
 Laying of sewers

Setting out: Positions of manholes are located on ground. Sewer line is planned between
two manholes at a time. Usual practice is starting from end to start.
 Laying of sewers
• Excavation of trench: Sufficient width provided beyond the diameter of sewer
for easy installation. Work is carried out in open cutting. For deeper depths,
shuttering provided for stability.
• Alignment and gradient: Sewers are laid on the bottom of trench as per the
gradient by taking appropriate levels. Bedding should be usually concrete or
levelled.
 Laying of sewers
• Laying and joining: Sewers are carefully lowered in the
trench so that adjacent
sewers can be joined easily by socket and spigot joints.
• Backfilling the trench: The trench is backfilled without
entry of water in the trench. 0.6-0.9 m of filling above the
crown of pipe is filled with debris, large rocks carefully
placed in 15 cm thick., watered and rammed. The backfill
material is filled above, rammed till the GL.
 Testing of sewers
• Straightness of alignment:
– Ball test: A smooth ball with 13 mm less diameter of sewer is rolled in sewer from
manhole upstream and collected at downstream manhole.
– Mirror test: Lamp at one end of sewer and mirror at other end of sewer are kept and
image is observed.
• Water test: Sewer pipe is allowed full of
water at pressure. Wetness of pipe surface
is observed.
 Testing of sewers
• Air test: Used in large pipes when sufficient water is not available. Air is sent
under pressure and air pressure is monitored along pipe length. Pressure drop
indicates leakage. Soap solution is applied to the joints for detecting leaks.
• Once pipe is cleared the leakage test, backfilling of trench is carried out.
Testing of sewers
 Maintenance of Sewers
• Purpose
– Cleaning to keep them free from any clogging
– Carrying out repair works to damaged portions
– Prolong life of sewers for efficient functioning
• Problems
• Clogging of sewers
• Health hazards
• Sewer blockage
– Silting and deposition of debris
– Sticking of greasy material in sewer
– Undesired material such as garbage/plastic thrown in sewer
• Typical operations
– Frequent inspection and supervision
– Measuring rate of flow
– Cleaning and flushing
– Repair of leaky joints
Maintenance of Sewers

Health Hazards
Protection equipment (gas mask,
safety belt, boots, gloves, oxygen
apparatus, Inhalators etc) to be
used
 Cleaning of Sewers
• Small sewers
– Flushing using flexible hose pressurized with water of length 30m.
 Cleaning of Sewers
• Medium sized sewers
– Using scraping instruments such as cane rodding consisting a steel cylinder
20-25 cm diameter and 6-75 m long provided with sharp cutting teeth.
Pulled in and out of sewer.
– Flushing of sewers
 Cleaning of Sewers
• Medium sized sewers
– Wooden balls (Pills) of large diameter rolled in the sewer which gets
clogged and increases pressure of flow. At high pressure flow the balls are
collected at the next manhole downstream.
 Cleaning of Sewers
• Miscellaneous
• Pumping of sewage from manholes
• Flexible sewer rods
• Crane and pulley mechanism with
grab bucket
Manholes
Maximum Permissible Limits for Effluent Discharges
Parameter Into inland surface Into public sewers On land for irrigation
waters IS: 3306 (1974) purposes
IS: 2490 (1974) IS: 3307 (1974)
pH 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0
BOD5 30 350 100
COD 250 -- --
Suspended solids 100 600 200
TDS (inorganic) 2100 2100 2100
Temperature (0C) 40 45 --
Oil & Grease 10 20 10
Cyanides 0.2 2 0.2
Sulphides 2 -- --
Fluorides 2 15 --
Pesticides -- -- --
Arsenic 0.2 0.2 0.2
Cadmium 2 1 --
Chromium (+6) 0.1 2 --
Copper 3 3 --
Lead 0.1 1 --
Mercury 0.01 0.01 --
Nickel 3 3 --
Selenium 0.05 0.05 --
Zinc 5 15 --
Chlorides 1000 1000 600
Boron 2 2 2
Sulphates 1000 1000 1000
Sodium (%) -- 60 60
Ammoniacal Nitrogen 50 50 --
 Maximum Permissible Limits for Effluent Discharges

Parameter Into inland surface Into public sewers On land for irrigation
waters IS: 3306 (1974) purposes
IS: 2490 (1974) IS: 3307 (1974)
pH 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0
BOD5 30 350 100
COD 250 -- --
Suspended solids 100 600 200
TDS (inorganic) 2100 2100 2100
 Sea disposal of sewage
• Sea disposal
– Sewage should be discharged deep into sea (1-1.5 km away from shore)
– Outfalls should be placed on firm foundation
– Proper dilution should take place at the point of mixing before it rises
– Diffusers are provided at the end
– Minimum depth at outfall : 3-5 m
– Sewage should be disposed off during low tides
– Wind direction and ocean currents should be considered
– Sewage being lighter than sea water rises up and forms a thin film
– Sludge banks will be formed

Tide level
1-1.5 km
Sewer
pipe
3-5 m

Sea bed
 On land disposal
• Wastewater either raw or partly treated is spread on land
• Part of it evaporates and rest percolates leaving suspended solids on the
ground
• The solids are acted by bacteria in soil under aerobic conditions
• Sewage farming: Sewage used for irrigation purposes
• Irrigation processes:
– Broad irrigation (percolation rate: 2-6 mm/min)
– Rapid infiltration (Percolation rate: 6-25 mm/min)
– Overland runoff (Percolation rate: < 2 mm/min)
– Sprinkler method
– Surface method (i) Basin method (ii) Flooding method (iii) Furrow method
• Infiltration depends upon clogging at soil surface, reduced upon pretreatment
• Rapid infiltration: for both waste disposal and ground water recharge
• Bottom of basin may be covered with grass which accumulates nitrogen
• Mechanical straining or filtration of organic matter
• Overland runoff: soils with poor permeability
percolation rate:
2-6 mm/min

On-Land
Disposal
of
Sewage

Percolation rate:
6-25 mm/min

Percolation rate:
< 2 mm/min
 On land disposal of sewage
Conditions favorable
• No other options are possible
• When plenty of land with good percolation is available
• Arid climate allowing quick evaporation
• Water table is low, low rainfall and shortage of irrigation water
• Cash crops growth is possible
Sewage sickness
• Clogging of sewage in soil pores resulting bad odors
Prevention of sewage sickness
• Pretreatment for removal of solids and BOD
• Provision of extra land, drying and ploughing the previous one
• Avoiding clayey soil (poor percolation)
• Creation of under drainage facility
• Sewage application in shallow depths
• Rotation of crops
 Major Sewer Materials
Different Materials (Major)
• Vitrified Clay or Stone ware
• Cast Iron
• Steel Pipes
• Plain cement or RCC pipes
Factors to be considered
• Hydraulic efficiency: Low value of N
• Resistance to abrasions: Due to solids in sewage
• Resistance to corrosion: Resist gases and their corrosion
• Strength: Subjected to overburden loads, external forces
• Durability: Minimum replacement
• Cost: Economical
• Weight: Light weight for easy handling
• Imperviousness: Should not allow seepage of sewage
 Vitrified Clay or Stoneware pipes
• Manufactured using clay and shales Disadvantages
at high temperature, cooled and • Weak in tension
put into mixes at high temperature • Brittle
• Surface is glazed by adding NaCl in • Bulky and heavy
the kiln
Usage
Advantages
• For house drainage and for
• Resistant to corrosion laterals
• Resistant to erosion of solids • Length: 0.3-0.9 m
• Smooth surface • Diameter: 0.1-0.3 m
• Highly impervious
• Good compressive strength
• Good to use under backfills
• Cheap
 Cast Iron Pipes Steel Pipes
Advantages
Advantages
• High strength
• Resistant to tensile, compressive
• Resist tensile, compressive, or
and bending forces
bending stresses
• Temperature variations
• Resistance to acid attacks
• Light weight
Disadvantages
• Large diameter
• Costly
• Easy welding
Usage
• High external loads
Usage
• High internal pressure (eg.
Pumping) • In pumping mains
• Crossing low level areas • Outfalls, trunk sewers
• Temperature variation
• Wet ground condition
• Under the roads-breakage of roads
• Length: 3-3.5 m
• Diameter: 150-750 mm
Plain Cement or RCC pipes
• Small diameter-> Plain
• Large diameter -> RCC
Advantages
• Strong for internal/external
pressures
• On-site manufacturing
• Desired size can be made
Plain cement pipes
• Economical for large diameter
Disadvantages
• Corroded and pitted due to
corrosion due to H2S gas.
• Forms H2SO4 and results in CaSO4
after reacting with concrete.
• Reduces life span and carrying
capacity of sewer. RCC pipes
 House Drainage
• Types of traps
• Gully trap
• Intercepting trap
• 2-pipe system
• 1-pipe system
• Single pipe ventilation
• Miscellaneous
 Types of traps
Fittings placed to control
the flow of foul gases
from pipes to outside
Water acts as a sealant

P-trap
 Different types of traps
• From floors of rooms, kitchens, baths into side
drain

Nahani trap
Gully trap

Provided at the junction of room or roof

drain or drains from bath, kitchen etc.
 Intercepting trap
Cleaning eye with
From house lid

To municipal
sewer

Provided at the junction of house sewer and

municipal sewer
Can also be provided in a manhole
House drainage plumbing system
House drainage plumbing system

Two-pipe system

•Two pipes: one for night soil

(soil pipes), other for sullage
(waste pipes)
• Soil pipes: latrines, urinals
• Waste pipes: baths, sinks, wash
basins
• Separate vent pipe for both
• Costly due to 4 pipes
• Extremely useful

One-pipe system

• Only one pipe for waste and

soil waste
• Vent pipe also provided
Single stack plumbing system

No ventilation
pipe
Only pipe for
carrying sullage
and soil waste
Pipe is extended
above and
provided a cowl
 Miscellaneous fittings
• Other Fittings
– Water closets
– Urinals
– Flushing cisterns
– Wash basins
– Bath tubs
– Kitchen sinks
 Environmental Sanitation
• Definition:
– Protecting public health by maintaining hygienic
environment and preventing spread of diseases.

Communicable
Water borne Diseases
diseases

Respiratory
Bacteria ……. Disease
 Rural Sanitation
Conservancy System
• Removable receptacle privy
• Bore-hole privy (or Dry latrine)
• Concrete vault privy
Aqua privy (or Wet latrine)

Soakpits
Sulabh sauchalaya (hand-flush water seal latrine)
 Major Forces acting on Sewers
Internal pressure due to sewage
pD
fh 
2t
• fh = tensile hoop stress
• p = internal pressure
• t = shell thickness
• D = diameter of sewer
D
Temperature stresses
Ft  ET
Ft = temperature stress
• E = Modulus of elasticity of pipe
material
• α = linear coefficient of thermal
expansion of pipe material
• T = Change in temperature
 Major Forces acting on Sewers
Super imposed loads
1. Concentrated loads
P
C s PI c
W GL
Lc
• P = concentrated load acting
H
on surface (kg)
• Ic = impact factor 1-1.75 for
different traffic conditions
• Lc = 1m (max)
• Cs = Load coeff based on
Bc/2H, Lc/2H

Bc
 Major Forces acting on Sewers
Super imposed loads
2. Uniformly distributed
loads
P (kg/m2)
W  Cs PBc I c GL

• W = Load on conduit (kg/m)

H
• Ic = impact factor
• Cs = Load coeff based on N
N/2H, M/2H
• P = udl intensity (kg/m2)

Bc
 Major Forces acting on Sewers
Super imposed loads
3. Conduits under railway
tracks
Sleepers
W  4CsUBc GL

• W = Load on conduit
H
• Cs = Load coeff based on
height of sleepers on top of
conduit
• U = udl (t/m2) based on axle
load, distance between
axles

Bc
 Major Forces acting on Sewers
Loads due to backfills
General equation

W  CB 2 GL
• W = Vertical load per unit
length acting on conduit
H
due to backfill ϒ
• C = Load coeff based on H/B
of trench
• B = width of trench
• ϒ = unit weight of backfill
material

B
 Sewage Pumping: Basics
• Purpose: To lift sewage for reducing deep excavations
• Storage of sewage for pumping
Sump (for short periods)
• Types of wells
Ground
Wet well
Slope Dry well
• Pumping
Both sewage solids and sewage liquid
• Types of pumps
Ground Centrifugal pump
Reciprocating pump
Slopes & Pneumatic ejectors or air pressure pumps
Lifts • Pumping Stations
Location
Component parts
Wet well/Dry well
Motor room
Rising main
Emergency exit pipe
Other accessories
Sewage Pumping
 Centrifugal Pumps
• Commonly used
• Main parts: (i) Casing (ii) Impeller
• Impeller rotates in casing
• Fitted with three vane type impellers open or closed. Clearance between
vanes is large enough for passing solid matter along with liquid
• Power and efficiency of CF pump

wQH
• Power, P ( kW ) 
  
p m

• wQH wQH
P( HP )  P( HP) 
75 
p m
 75 
 Air pressure pumps or Pneumatic ejectors
• For pumping small quantities of
sewage to small heights
• When CF pumps are likely to clog
• Uses compressed air of about 0.15
Pa used for lifting
• Qty of air required V (m3/min) to
operate ejector
QH  10.3
V
12.2
• H: total head (m); Q: sewage
Design aspects
discharge (m3/min) -Estimate peak DWF (Q)
• Field capacity: 40% excess of V - Assume no of times ejector will operate in an hour and
estimate volume required for ejector
• Advantages - Fix height and estimate diameter
– Operation is fully automatic - Calculate area of air pipe using velocity of compressed
– Little maintenance air and Q and hence dia
- Assuming velocity in sewage main, calculate dia of
• Disadvantages sewer pipe for Q flow
– Low efficiency (~ 15%)
 Industrial Wastewater Treatment
• Flow dilution
• Flow equalization & Neutralization
• Normalization of flow, concentration and pH
• Segregation based on volume and concentrations (Volume reduction & Strength reduction)

Storm Activities
water
Sump Discha
E rge
From
T
Process
P

Sewage

Dilution Principle
Concept of dilution:
High concentration, Low volume Q1C1  Q2C2
Low concentration, High volume C
High Volume, Low concentration
Q1  Q2
Low volume, Low concentration