Chapter 6 - Motivation Concepts

Chapter SIX
Basic
Motivation Concepts
© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Objectives
 Outline the motivation process.
 Describe Maslow’s need hierarchy.
 Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors.
 List the characteristics that high achievers prefer
in a job.
 Summarize the types of goals that increase
performance.
 Discuss ways self-efficacy can be increased.
 State the impact of under-rewarding employees.
 Clarify the key relationships in expectancy
theory.
 Explain how the contemporary theories of
motivation complement each other.
What Is Motivation?
Direction
Intensity Persistence

What is Motivation?
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal.
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person can
maintain his/her effort.

Key Elements of Motivation
 Intensity – is concerned with how hard a person
tries. However, high intensity unlikely to lead to
favorable job-performance outcomes unless the
effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the
org.
 Direction – effort that is directed toward, &
consistent with, the org.’s goals is the kind of
effort that we should be seeking.
 Persistence – this is a measure of how long a
person can maintain their effort. Motivated
individuals stay with a task long enough to
achieve their goal.

Categories of Motivation Theories
Content Theories of ProcessTheories of

Motivation Motivation
Theories that explain the
dynamics of employee needs, Theories that describe the
such as why people have processes through which
different needs at different needs are translated into
times. behavior.
By understanding an employee`s These theories help explain

needs, we can discover the
conditions that motivate that why people behave the way
person. they do; thus help us
understand, predict, and
influence employee
performance, attendance,
work satisfaction & other
outcomes.

Early Theories of Motivation
Hierarch of Needs Theory

( Maslow)
Theory-X and Theory-Y
(McGreogor)
Two –Factor Theory
( Frederick Herzberg)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs—
physiological, safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualization; as each need
is substantially ( not necessarily ever fully
gratified) satisfied, the next need
becomes dominant.
If you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you

need to understand what level of the heirarchy that person
is currently on and focus on satisfying those needs at or
above that level.

Maslow's Needs Hierarchy Theory
Needs Hierarchy
Theory
Self-  The drive to become what one is capable of

Actualization becoming; includes growth, achieving one`s
potential, and self-fulfillment.
Esteem  Includes internal esteem factors such as self-
respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external
esteem factors such as status, recognition, &
Belongingness attention.
 Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance &
friendship.
Safety  Includes security & protection from physical and
emotional harm.
Physiological  Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other

bodily needs.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory …. continued
 Physiological - needs include hunger, thirst,

shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
 Safety – needs include security & protection
from physical & emotional harm.
 Social – needs include affection, belongingness,
acceptance, and friendship.
 Esteem – includes internal esteem factors such
as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and
external esteem factors such as status,
recognition, and attention.
 Self-actualization – the drive to become what
one is capable of becoming; includes growth,
achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs. and self-actualization
Self needs.
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
E X H I B I T 6–1

Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement up the Pyramid

•Individuals cannot move to the next higher level
until all needs at the current (lower) level are
satisfied.
Maslow’s Application:
•Individuals
therefore must A homeless person
move up the will not be motivated to
hierarchy in order
meditate!

Theory X & Theory Y
 Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views

of human beings: one basically negative labeled
Theory X, and the other basically positive,
labeled Theory Y.
 After viewing the way in which managers dealt

with employees, McGregor concluded that a
manager’s view of the nature of human beings is
based on certain assumptions and he/she tends
to mold his/her behavior toward employees
according to these assumptions.

Having Little Ambition
Theory X Disliking Work

Managers See Workers As…
Avoiding Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y
Enjoying Work
Managers See Workers As…
Accepting Responsibility
Theory X’s Assumptions
Theory X:
 Employees inherently dislike work & whenever
possible, will attempt to avoid it.
 Since employees dislike work, they must be
compelled/forced, controlled, or threatened with
punishment to achieve goals.
 Employees will avoid responsibilities & seek
formal direction whenever possible.
 Most workers place security above all other
factors associated with work & will display little
ambition.

Theory Y’s Assumptions
Theory Y:
 Employees can view work as being as natural as
rest or play.
 People will exercise self-direction & self-control if
they are committed to the objectives.
 The average person can learn to accept, even
seek, responsibility.
 The ability to make innovative decisions is widely
dispersed throughout the population & is not
necessarily the sole province of those in
management positions.

Implications Of McGregor’s Analysis
 Theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate
individuals.
 Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate
individuals.
 McGregor himself held to the belief that Theory Y
assumptions were more valid than Theory X.
 Therefore, he proposed ideas such as participative decision
making, responsible & challenging jobs, & good group
relations as approaches that would maximize an
employee’s job motivation.
 Unfortunately, there is no evidence to confirm that either
set of assumptions is valid.
 Theory X or Theory Y assumptions may be appropriate in a
particular situation.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction are not Opposite Ends of the
Same Thing!
Hygiene
Factors: Separate constructs Motivators:
•Salary – Hygiene Factors--- •Achievement

Extrinsic & Related to
•Work •Responsibility
Dissatisfaction
Conditions •Growth
•Company – Motivation Factors---
Policies Intrinsic and Related
to Satisfaction

Comparison of Satisfiers
and Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing
events on the job that led to
extreme job dissatisfaction
Factors characterizing
events on the job that
led to extreme job
satisfaction
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time:
How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–October 1987. Copyright E X H I B I T 6–2
© 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.
Two-Factor Theory …. continued
 Traditional belief – opposite of “satisfaction” is
“dissatisfaction”.
 According to Herzberg; opposite of “satisfaction”
is “no satisfaction” & the opposite of
“Dissatisfaction” is “ not Dissatisfaction”
 But according to Herzberg removing dissatisfying
characteristics from a job does not necessarily
make the job satisfying.
 Factors leading to job satisfaction are separate &
distinct from those that lead to job
dissatisfaction.
 Thus managers who seek to eliminate factors that
can create job dissatisfaction may bring about
peace but not necessarily motivation.
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction
E X H I B I T 6–3

What's special about “Motivation-Hygiene Theory”?
This theory casts a spotlight on job content as a

dominanat source of employee motivation. Before
this theory, many researchers were preoccupied
with the physical & social context of work. This
theory addressed more explicitly the idea that
employees may be motivated by the work itself.
Limitations
 Other studies have reported that hygiene factors are widely used
to motivate people to join the organization, attend work on time,
and perform their jobs better.
 Financial rewards are also potentially powerfull motivators, even
though Herzberg saw them mainly as hygienes.

Criticism of Two-factor Theory
 The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its
methodology. When things are going well, people
tend to take credit themselves. Contrarily, they
blame failure on the extrinsic environment.
 The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is
questioned.
 No overall measure of satisfaction was used.
 The theory is inconsistent with the previous
research. This theory ignores situational
variables.
 Herzberg assumed a relationship b/w satisfaction
& productivity, but the research methodology he
used looked only at satisfaction not at
productivity.
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
 ERG Theory ( Clayton Alderfer)

 Theory of Needs (McClelland)
 Cognitive Evaluation Theory
 Goal-Setting Theory ( Gene Broadwater)
 Reinforcement Theory
 Job Design Theory
 Equity Theory
 Expectancy Theory

Alderfer`s ERG Theory
ERG
Theory
Includes a person`s needs for self-esteem through
personal achievement as well as the concept of self-
Growth actualization presented in Maslow`s model.
Includes a person`s needs to interact with other

Relatedness people, receive public recognition, and feel
secure around people ( i.e., interpersonal safety).
Includes a person`s physiological & physical

Existence
related needs, such as the need for food,
shelter, and safe working conditions.

Alderfer`s ERG Theory ……Important points
 ERG theory assumes that an employee`s behavior may be
motivated simultaneously by more than one need level.
 If the gratification of higher-level need is stifled, the desire
to satisfy a lower-level need increases.
 ERG theory, although assumes the Maslow`s satisfaction-
progression process, however, theory includes( adds) a
frustration-regression process – those who are unable to
satisfy a higher need become frustraed and regress to the
next lower need level. ( Inability to satisfy a need for social
interaction, might increase the desire for more money or
better working conditions). So frustration can lead to a
regression to a lower need.
 Overall, this theory seems to come closest to explain why
employees have particular needs at various times.

Theory of Learned Needs
McClelland’s Learned Needs
Need for A learned need in which people want to
Achievement accomplish reasonably challenging goals through
their own efforts, like to be successful in
competitive situations, and desire unambiguous
feedback regarding their success.
Need for A learned need in which people want to control

Power their environment, including people and material
resources, to benefit either themselves(
personalized power ) or others ( socialized
power).
Need for A learned need in which people seek approval from

Affiliation others, conform to their wishes & expectations, and
avoid conflict & confrontation.

David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

The drive to excel, to The desire for
achieve in relation to a set friendly and close
of standards, to strive to personal
succeed. relationships.
Need for Power Bottom Line:

Individuals have
The need to make others
behave in a way that they different levels of
would not have behaved needs in each of these
otherwise. areas, and those
levels will drive their
behavior
David McClelland’s (“achievement need” )
 Some people have a compelling drive to succeed.
 They’re striving for personal achievement rather than the
rewards of success per see.
 They have a desire to do something better or more
efficiently than it has been done before.
 This drive is the achievement need ( nAch).
 From research into the achievement need, McClelland
found that “high achievers” differentiate themselves from
others by their desire to do things better.
 They seek situations in which they can attain personal
responsibility for finding solutions, in which they can
receive rapid feedback on their performance so they can
determine easily whether they are improving or not.
 High achievers are not gamblers; they dislike succeeding
by chance.
David McClelland’s (“achievement need” )
 High achievers perform best when they perceive their
probability of success as being 0.5.
 Similarly, they dislike low odds ( high probability of
success) because then there is no challenge to their skills.
 They like to set goals that require stretching themselves a
little.

David McClelland’s (“need for power” )
 The need for power (nPow) is the desire to have
an impact, to be influential, and to control others.
Individuals high in nPow enjoy being “ in
charge”,
 strive for influence over others,
 prefer to be placed into competitive & status-
oriented situations,
 and tend to be more concerned with prestige &
gaining influence over others than with effective
performance.

David McClelland’s (“need for affiliation” )
 The individuals with a high affiliation need ( nAff)
strive for friendship,
 prefer cooperative situations rather than
competitive ones,
 and desire relationships that involve high degree
of mutual understanding.

Matching Achievers & Jobs
 Relying on an extensive amount of research,
some reasonably well- supported predictions can
be made based on the relationship b/w
achievement need & job performance.
 First – Individuals with a high “nAch” prefer job
situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and a
moderate degree of risk. When these characteristics are
prevalent,
high achiever will be strongly motivated.
Examples: entrepreneurs, individuals managing a Self-
contained unit within a large org.

Matching Achievers & Jobs…… continued
 Second – a high “nAch” does not necessarily
lead to being a good manager, especially in large
orgs. People with a high achievement need are
interested in how well they do personally & not in
influencing others to do well.
Example – High “nAch” sales people do not
necessarily make good sales managers.
 Third – the needs for affiliation & power tend to
be closely related to managerial success. The
best managers are high in their need for power &
low in their need for affiliation.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that
had been previously only intrinsically rewarding,
tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.
Hint: For this theory,

think about how fun it
is to read in the
summer, but once
reading is assigned to
you for a grade, you
don’t want to do it!

Cognitive Evaluation Theory…continued
 This theory proposes that the introduction of
extrinsic rewards, such as pay, for work effort
that was previously intrinsically rewarding due to
the pleasure associated with the content of the
work itself tends to decrease overall motivation.
 According to this theory when extrinsic rewards
are used by orgs. as payoffs for superior
performance, the intrinsic rewards, which are
derived from individuals doing what they like, are
reduced.
 In other words, when extrinsic rewards are given
to someone for performing an interesting task, it
causes intrinsic interest in the task itself to
decline.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory…continued
Implications of CE Theory for managerial practices
 It has been a truism among compensation
specialists for years that if pay or other extrinsic
rewards are to be effective motivators, they
should be made contingent on an individual’s
performance.
 But, CE Theorists argue that this will only tend to
decrease the internal satisfaction that the
individual receives from doing the job.
 Thus it would make sense to make an individual’s
pay non-contingent on performance in order to
avoid decreasing intrinsic motivation.

What Would Herzberg Say? What Would Maslow
Say?
E X H I B I T 6–5

Goal-Setting Theory
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals,
with feedback, lead to higher performance.
 “Do your best”. But what does “do your best”

mean?
 Goal Specificity
 Challenge
 Feedback

Goal-Setting Theory
 Edwin Locke(1960) proposed that intentions to
work toward a goal are a major source of work
motivation.
 Specific goals produce a higher level of output
than does the generalized goal of “do your best”.
 If factors such as ability & acceptance of the
goals are held constant, the more difficult the
goal, the higher the level of performance.
 People will do better when they get feedback on
how well they are progressing toward their goals.
 Feedback helps in identifying the discrepancies
b/w what they have done & what they wanted to
do.

Self-Efficacy
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can
complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will
be achieved
Not to be confused with:
Self Esteem, which is….

Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking
themselves.
YES WE CAN!

Reinforcement Theory
 A counterpoint to goal-setting theory is
reinforcement theory.
 The former is a cognitive approach, proposing
that an individual’s purposes direct his or her
action ( BEHAVIOR).
 In reinforcement theory, we have a behaviorist
approach, which argues that reinforcement
conditions behavior.
 The two are clearly at odds philosophically.

Argues that behavior is a function of its
consequences.
Assumptions:
•Behavior is environmentally caused.
•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by
providing (controlling) consequences.
•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

 Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of

the individual & concentrates solely on what
happens to a person when he or she takes some
action.
 In its pure form, “RT” ignores feelings, attitudes,

expectations & other cognitive variables that are
known to have an impact on behavior.

Job Design Theory
 Research in Job Design provides stronger
evidence that that the way the elements in a job
are organized can act to increase or decrease
effort on the part of the employee.
 Job Characteristics Model – proposes that
any job can be described in terms of five core job
dimensions.
 Skill Variety
 Task Identity
 Task Significance
 Autonomy
 Feedback
 Skill Variety: Skill variety describes the degree
to which a job requires the exercise of a number
of different skills, abilities, or talents. Such
activities must not merely be different, but they
must be distinct enough to require different skills.
 Task Identity: Task identity defines the extent to
which a job requires completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work.
 Task Significance: Task significance refers to
the importance of the job; the degree to which the
job has an impact on the lives of other people.

 Autonomy: Autonomy is the degree to which
the jobholder is free to schedule the pace of his
or her work and determine the procedures to be
used.
 Feedback: Feedback is the degree to which the
individual doing a job obtains information about
the effectiveness of the performance. Feedback
does not only refer to supervisory feedback, but
also the ability to observe the results of their
work.

Motivating Potential Score ( MPS)
The core dimensions can be combined into a single predictive
index, called the “Motivating Potential Score ( MPS)”
Which is calculated as follows:

 “Job Characteristic Model- JCM” has been well
researched & most of the evidence supports the
general framework of the theory – that is, there is
a multiple set of job characteristics & these
characteristics have an impact on behavioral
outcomes.

Equity Theory
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and then respond to eliminate
any inequities.
Referent
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside

Equity Theory … continued
 Employees make comparisons of their job inputs
( i.e., effort, experience, education, competence) and
outcome ( i.e., salary levels, raises, recognition)
relative to those of others.
 We perceive what we get from a job situation (
outcomes) in relation to what we put into it
(inputs), and then we compare our outcome-input
ratio with the outcome-input ratio of relevant
others.
 If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the
relevant others with whom we compare
ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist.
 We perceive our situation as fair – that justice
prevails.
Equity Theory … continued
 When we see the ratio as unequal, we experience
equity tension.
 When we seer ourselves as under rewarded, the
tension creates anger; when over rewarded, the
tension creates guilt (……… really).
 Employees might compare themselves to friends,
neighbors, coworkers, or colleagues in other
orgs. or compare their present job with past jobs
they themselves have had.

 The referent that an employee selects adds to the
complexity of equity theory. There are four
referent comparisons that an employee can use:
 Self-inside : An employee’s experiences in a

different position inside his/her current org.
 Self-outside : An employee’s experiences in a
situation or position outside his/her current org.
 Other-inside: Another individual or group of
individuals inside the employee’s org.
 Other-outside: Another individual or group of
individuals outside the employee’s org.

Equity Theory (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 6–8

Based on “ET”, when employees perceive an inequity, they

can be predicted to make one of six choices.
Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce
more than equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded piece-work employees
produce less, but do higher quality piece
work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce
lower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger
quantities of lower-quality piece work than
equitably rewarded employees.

Three types of Justice
Distributive Justice Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of the The perceived fairness of
outcome (the final the process used to
distribution). determine the outcome
(the final distribution).
“Who got what?”
“How was who gets
what decided?”
Inter-actional Justice
The degree to which one is treated
with dignity and respect.
“Was I treated well?”
Justice and Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory
EXHIBIT

Expectancy Theory
Ethical Values and

Behaviors of Leaders
Bottom line
• All three links between the boxes must be intact or
motivation will not occur. Thus,
• Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform
And
• If they perform, they will be rewarded
And
• When they are rewarded, the reward will be something
they care about
Chapter Check-Up: Motivation
Elizabeth’s boss starts out the day

each morning saying, “Bet you
wish you didn’t have to be here,
huh?” Knowing this, which theory
gives us insight as to why
Elizabeth may not be motivated at
work?
Elizabeth’s boss my well be a

Theory X manager, as s/he
assumes employees don’t like
work and/or want to be there.

If you study really hard and

only get a B on an exam, but
your classmate barely studies
at all and gets an A, what
theory will help explain why
you feel less motivated to go
to class?

What theory would say that this man, who knows

he works hard and is performing well, will be
motivated by a gym membership for being a high
performer?

Expectancy Theory.
Would a gym membership
be considered a motivator
or hygiene factor,
according to Herzberg?
Discuss with a classmate.

Putting It All Together

Matching High Achievers and Jobs
E X H I B I T 6–4

Goal-Setting Theory …. continued
 Are there any contingencies in goal-setting
theory or can we take it as a universal truth that
difficult & specific goals will always lead to higher
performance?
 In addition to feedback, four other factors found
to influence the goal – performance relation are:
 Goal commitment, “I want to do it & I can do it”.
 Adequate self-efficacy
 Task characteristics, (simple, well-learned)
 National culture

Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting

Goal Setting in Action: MBO Programs
Management By Objectives Programs

• Company wide goals & objectives
• Goals aligned at all levels
• Based on Goal Setting Theory

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Chapter SIX

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Content Theories of ProcessTheories of

By understanding an employee`s These theories help explain

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Hierarch of Needs Theory

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Hierarchy of Needs Theory

If you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Self-  The drive to become what one is capable of

Physiological  Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other

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 Physiological - needs include hunger, thirst,

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Movement up the Pyramid

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 Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views

 After viewing the way in which managers dealt

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Theory X Disliking Work

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•Salary – Hygiene Factors--- •Achievement

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This theory casts a spotlight on job content as a

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 ERG Theory ( Clayton Alderfer)

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Includes a person`s needs to interact with other

Includes a person`s physiological & physical

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© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Need for A learned need in which people want to control

Need for A learned need in which people seek approval from

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Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

Need for Power Bottom Line:

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Hint: For this theory,

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 “Do your best”. But what does “do your best”

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Self Esteem, which is….

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 Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of

 In its pure form, “RT” ignores feelings, attitudes,

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© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.