Chapt10 Patterns of Inheritance

Chapter 10
Patterns of Inheritance
Family: ©DragonImages/Getty Images RF; cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Genetics Explains and Predicts
Inheritance Patterns
Genetics can explain how

these kittens look different.
Section 10.1 Cats: ©Jane Burton/Getty Images

Figure 9.1
Analyzing their genes can also

help predict the appearance of
their offspring.

Figure 9.1
But most genes encode

proteins that have nothing to
do with outward appearance.
The enzymes essential to these
kittens’ lives are also the
products of genetics.

Figure 9.1
Studying genetics also allows

scientists to breed superior
crops and doctors to track
genetic illnesses.

Figure 9.1
Chromosomes Are Packets of
Genetic Information
Recall that DNA is wound

tightly into chromosomes.
Section 10.1 Chromosome: ©CNRI/Science Source

Figure 10.1
Genetic Information
Cells with only one set of

chromosomes, such as sex cells,
are haploid.

Figure 10.1
Genetic Information
When two haploid cells fuse

during fertilization, a diploid
zygote with two full sets of
chromosomes is formed.

Figure 10.1
Genetic Information
Most cells of a mature

individual are diploid.

Figure 10.1
Genetic Information
Homologous chromosomes
have the same genes, but
might have different versions
(alleles) of those genes.

Figure 10.1
Genetic Information
Diploid cells therefore have

two alleles for each gene.
These alleles might be
identical (gene A) or
different (gene B).

Figure 10.1
Genetic Information
Each gene’s locus is its location

on a chromosome.

Figure 10.1
10.1 Mastering Concepts
How do meiosis, fertilization, diploid cells,

and haploid cells interact in a sexual life
cycle?
Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

Mendel Uncovered Basic Laws
of Inheritance
Gregor Mendel used pea plants

to study heredity.
Section 10.2 Mendel: ©James King-Holmes/Science Source

Figure 10.2
of Inheritance
Hand-pollinating plants allowed Mendel to control

plant breeding experiments.
Section 10.2 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 10.3
of Inheritance
Self-fertilizing and cross-fertilizing in different combinations

allowed Mendel to deduce the principles of inheritance.
Figure 10.3
of Inheritance
True-breeding plants produce offspring identical to themselves.
Figure 10.4
of Inheritance
Dominant alleles exert their effects whenever they are present.
Crossing a yellow-seed plant with a green-seed plant always yields
some yellow seeds. Yellow seed color is therefore dominant.
Figure 10.4
of Inheritance
A recessive allele is one whose effect is masked
if a dominant allele is also present.
Recessive alleles usually encode nonfunctional proteins.
Figure 10.4
of Inheritance
If yellow seed color is dominant, why are some seeds green
when a yellow-seed plant is crossed with a green-seed plant?
We need more information before we can fully answer this question.
Figure 10.5
of Inheritance
But the answer has to do with each

plant having two alleles for each
gene (because of their homologous
pairs of chromosomes).
Figures 10.6
of Inheritance
A genotype represents an
individual’s two alleles for one
gene. The genotype confers a
phenotype, or observable
characteristic.
Figures 10.6
of Inheritance
• Homozygous dominant individuals

have two dominant alleles for a gene.
• Heterozygous individuals have one
dominant and one recessive allele.
• Homozygous recessive individuals
have two recessive alleles.
Figures 10.6
of Inheritance
It is possible to look at offspring to
determine the genotype of the
parent. As we’ll see, Punnett
squares help solve these puzzles.
Figures 10.5, 10.6
Distinguish between dominant and

recessive, heterozygous and homozygous,
phenotype and genotype, wild-type and
mutant.

The Simplest Punnett Squares Track the
Inheritance of One Gene
A Punnett square
uses the genotypes of
the parents to reveal
which alleles the
offspring may inherit.
Figure 10.7
In this example, a
female parent that is
heterozygous for seed
color is crossed with
a male parent that is
also heterozygous for
seed color.
Figure 10.7
This is a monohybrid
cross since both
parents are
heterozygous for the
one gene being
evaluated.
Figure 10.7
Genotype Gg
indicates that all
diploid cells,
including germ cells,
in these parents have
both dominant and
recessive seed color
alleles.
Figure 10.7
When germ cells
divide by meiosis,
chromosomes (and
the alleles on those
chromosomes) are
randomly distributed
among gametes.
Figure 10.7
A gamete from the

female parent and a
gamete from the
male parent then
unite at fertilization.
Figure 10.7
If both gametes carry

dominant alleles, the
offspring will inherit
two dominant alleles.
Figure 10.7
If one gamete carries
a dominant allele and
the other carries a
recessive allele, the
offspring will be
heterozygous.
Figure 10.7
If one gamete carries
a dominant allele and
the other carries a
recessive allele, the
offspring will be
heterozygous.
Figure 10.7
If both gametes carry

recessive alleles, the
offspring will inherit
two recessive alleles.
Figure 10.7
This Punnett square

therefore represents
all possible offspring
that might result
from these parents.
Figure 10.7
This Punnett square

also shows the
relative proportion of
the offspring
phenotypes and
genotypes.
Figure 10.7
On average, three
offspring will have
yellow seeds for
every one with green
seeds.
Figure 10.7
On average, one
offspring will have
genotype GG for
every two with Gg
and for every one
with gg.
Figure 10.7
Punnett squares allow us to
determine the genotypes of these
yellow-seed pea plants.
Figures 10.5, 10.6
Punnett squares also help us
answer this question:
If yellow seed color is dominant,
why are some seeds green when
a yellow-seed plant is crossed
with a green-seed plant?
Figures 10.5, 10.6
If a cross between a yellow-
seed pea plant (GG or Gg) and
a green-seed pea plant (gg)
yields all yellow seeds, the
yellow-seed parent is
homozygous dominant.
Figures 10.6, 10.8
If the cross yields some green
seeds, the yellow-seed parent
is heterozygous.
Figures 10.6, 10.8
Meiosis Explains Mendel’s
Law of Segregation
Punnett squares summarize meiosis and fertilization.
Figure 10.9
Law of Segregation
The two alleles for the G gene are packaged into separate
gametes, which then combine at random.
Figure 10.9
Law of Segregation
Can you create a Punnett square representing
the information in this figure?
Figure 10.9
Mendel’s Law Applied to Humans
Punnett squares are

also useful for
tracking the
inheritance of genetic
disorders, such as
cystic fibrosis.
Section 10.3 Boys: ©ZUMA Wire Service/Alamy

Figure 10.10
Clicker Question #1
Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele.
If a healthy carrier and an affected individual
have a child, what is the chance the child will
be affected?
A. 1/4
B. 1/3
C. 1/2
D. 3/4
E. 1

Clicker Question #1
Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele.
If a healthy carrier and an affected individual
have a child, what is the chance the child will
be affected?
A. 1/4
B. 1/3
C. 1/2
D. 3/4
E. 1

What is a monohybrid cross, and what are

the genotypic and phenotypic ratios
expected in the offspring of the cross?

Tracking Two-Gene Inheritance May
Require Large Punnett Squares
Two genes on different chromosomes can be combined into
one large Punnett square.
Figure 10.11
Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Law of
Independent Assortment
Based on dihybrid crosses, Mendel proposed the law of
independent assortment, which states that the segregation of
alleles for one gene does not influence the segregation of alleles for
another gene.
Figure 10.12
Clicker Question #2
Why is it impossible for one of the female
gametes to have genotype rr?
A. Each germ cell only has one r allele.

B. Each gamete can only receive two alleles,
and one must be a y.
C. The r alleles separate during meiosis.

Figure 10.11
Clicker Question #2
Why is it impossible for one of the female
gametes to have genotype rr?
A. Each germ cell only has one r allele.

B. Each gamete can only receive two alleles,
and one must be a y.
C. The r alleles separate during meiosis.

Figure 10.11
The Product Rule Replaces Complex
Punnett Squares
Tracking two or more genes on one Punnett square is challenging
and time-consuming. The product rule simplifies these problems.
Figure 10.13
Punnett Squares
The chance that two independent events will both occur, equals
the product of the individual chances that each event will occur.
Figure 10.13
Punnett Squares
For example, the probability that an offspring inherits
genotype Rr Gg Tt is equal to the probability of Rr (1/2) times
the probability of Gg (1/2) times the probability of Tt (1/2).
Figure 10.13
Clicker Question #3
A male with genotype Qq Bb Dd is crossed
with a female with genotype qq bb dd. What
proportion of the offspring will be
homozygous recessive for all three genes?
A. 1/2
B. 1/3
C. 1/4
D. 1/6
E. 1/8

Clicker Question #3
A male with genotype Qq Bb Dd is crossed
with a female with genotype qq bb dd. What
proportion of the offspring will be
homozygous recessive for all three genes?
A. 1/2
B. 1/3
C. 1/4
D. 1/6
E. 1/8

How does the law of independent

assortment reflect the events of meiosis?

Genes on the Same Chromosome
Are Linked
The product rule cannot be used if genes are linked,
because inheriting one allele influences the likelihood
of inheriting a linked allele.
Figure 10.15
Are Linked
However, because of crossing over,
linked alleles are not always inherited together.
Figure 10.15
Are Linked
The probability of a crossover event occurring between two
linked alleles is proportional to the distance between the genes.
Figure 10.16
Linkage Maps Derive from
Crossover Frequencies
The letters below the linkage map of this chromosome

represent alleles. The numbers above represent crossover
frequencies relative to y.
Figure 10.16
Linkage Maps Derive from
Crossover Frequencies
Crossing over frequently separates y and r but rarely separates

y and w. Therefore, even without this diagram, one could infer
that y is nearer to w than to r.
Figure 10.16
Explain how to use crossover frequencies to

make a linkage map.

Gene Expression Can Alter
Mendelian Ratios
So far we discussed genes with two
alleles, in which the dominant allele
masks the recessive allele. But gene
expression does not always follow
that pattern.
Section 10.6 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 10.17
Gene Expression Can Alter
Mendelian Ratios
So far we discussed genes with two
alleles, in which the dominant allele
masks the recessive allele. But gene
expression does not always follow
that pattern.
• Incomplete dominance
• Codominance
• Pleiotropy
Figure 10.17
Incomplete Dominance and
Codominance Add Phenotype Classes
In incomplete dominance, the
heterozygote has an
intermediate phenotype.
Figure 10.17
The recessive allele (r2) still
encodes a nonfunctional protein.
Figure 10.17
The heterozygote is pink because it
receives half the dose of the red
pigment conferred by the dominant
allele.
Figure 10.17
In codominance, more
than one allele encodes
a functional protein.
Figure 10.18
If two dominant alleles

are present, both
proteins encoded by
those alleles will be
represented in the
phenotype.
Figure 10.17
In human blood types,

both IA and IB are
dominant alleles.
Genotype IAIB confers
red blood cells with
both A and B
molecules.
Figure 10.17
The I gene also has a

recessive allele, i, which
encodes a
nonfunctional protein.
But the two dominant
alleles, IA and IB, make
the I gene codominant.
Figure 10.17
Inheritance Patters Are Often Complicated
In pleiotropy, one gene has multiple effects on the phenotype. For

example, a gene might affect more than one biochemical pathway.
A1 A2 A3 Phenotype A
Gene
+
Protein
B1 X B2 B3 Phenotype B
(enzyme)
+
C1 C2 C3 Phenotype C
Biochemical
pathways
Inheritance Patters Are Often Complicated
In this example, a gene encodes a protein that catalyzes reactions

in two biochemical pathways and blocks another.
A1 A2 A3 Phenotype A
Gene
+
Protein
B1 X B2 B3 Phenotype B
(enzyme)
+
C1 C2 C3 Phenotype C
Biochemical
pathways
How do incomplete dominance and

codominance increase the number of
phenotypes?

Sex-Linked Genes Have Unique
In humans, females have

two X chromosomes. Males
have one X chromosome
and one Y chromosome.
Section 10.7 All SEM: ©Andrew Syred/Science Source

Figure 10.20
This Punnett square shows

that each fertilization event
has a 50% chance of
producing a female and a
50% chance of producing a
male.

Figure 10.20
Which gamete, the sperm or

the egg, determines the sex
of the offspring?

Figure 10.20
The egg will always carry an

X chromosome. The sex
chromosome in the sperm
therefore determines if the
offspring is female or male.

Figure 10.20
X-linked recessive
disorders affect more
males than females.
Section 10.7 Boy: ©Waheed Khan/epa/Corbis

Figure 10.21
Females must
receive a recessive
allele on both X
chromosomes to
express an X-linked
recessive disorder.

Figure 10.21
Males only have one

X chromosome. To
express a recessive
disorder, they only
need to inherit one
X-linked recessive
allele.

Figure 10.21
Clicker Question #4
Hemophilia is a X-linked recessive disorder.
If an affected female and an unaffected
male have a boy, what is the chance he will
have hemophilia?
A. 0
B. 1/4
C. 1/2
D. 3/4
E. 1

Clicker Question #4
Hemophilia is a X-linked recessive
disorder. If an affected female and an
unaffected male have a boy, what is the
chance he will have hemophilia?
A. 0
B. 1/4
C. 1/2
D. 3/4
E. 1

Table 10.1
X Inactivation Prevents “Doubling
Dosing” of Proteins
X inactivation prevents double-dosing of gene products. Each cell
in an XX individual, such as this female cat, randomly inactivates
one X chromosome.
Section 10.7 Cat: ©Seide Preis/Getty Images RF

Figure 10.22
X Inactivation Prevents “Doubling
Dosing” of Proteins
If one X chromosome has an allele for orange fur and the other has
an allele for black fur, color patterns emerge when X chromosomes
are randomly inactivated.
Section 10.7 Cat: ©Seide Preis/Getty Images RF

Figure 10.22
Why do males and females express recessive

X-linked alleles differently?

Pedigrees Show Modes of Inheritance
A pedigree depicts family

relationships and phenotypes.
Figure 10.23
This pedigree tracks an

autosomal dominant disorder.
Figure 10.23
This pedigree tracks an

autosomal recessive disorder.
Figure 10.23
This pedigree tracks an X-

linked recessive disorder. Note
that more males are affected
than females.
Figure 10.23
Clicker Question #5
This pedigree tracks an autosomal dominant

disorder. What is the genotype of I-2?
A. homozygous dominant
B. heterozygous
C. homozygous recessive

Clicker Question #5
This pedigree tracks an autosomal dominant

disorder. What is the genotype of I-2?
A. homozygous dominant
B. heterozygous
C. homozygous recessive

How are pedigrees helpful in determining a

disorder’s mode of inheritance?

The Environment Can Alter Phenotype
Many genes are affected by the

environment. For example, the
enzyme responsible for pigment
production in Siamese cat fur is
active only in cool body parts.
Section 10.9 Cat: ©Photodisc/Getty Images RF

Figure 10.24
Polygenic Traits Depend on More than
One Gene
Skin color is a polygenic trait; it is affected by more than one gene.
Section 10.9 Girls: ©Sarah Leen/National Geographic Stock

Figure 10.25
Epistasis
Epistasis is a phenomenon where one gene affects the phenotype

of another gene. This happens when a gene influences different
phenotypes in an organism.
Epistasis
Example: Hair color is a trait that is controlled by MCR1

gene. Blonde, Brown and Black color is determined by
the amount of pigment eumelanin and red hair is
determined by pheomelanin.
MCR1 gene allows the conversion of pheomelanin to
eumelanin that is why its rare to have a red hair.
How can the environment affect a

phenotype?

Investigating Life: Heredity and the
Hungry Hordes
Bollworm caterpillars
devastate cotton crops. But
some bollworms are
susceptible to Bt toxin.
Biologists have inserted the
gene encoding this toxin into
the cotton genome.
Figure 10.A
Hungry Hordes
In a mating between two Bt-resistant bollworms, all of the

offspring will also be resistant.
Figure 10.A
Hungry Hordes
However, if a resistant
bollworm mates with a
susceptible bollworm, only
some—and sometimes
none—of the offspring will
be resistant. (Would you
guess Bt resistance is
conferred by a dominant or
a recessive allele?)
Figure 10.A
Hungry Hordes
To avoid 100% resistance

among bollworms of future
generations, farmers must
plant some crops without
the toxin gene.
Figure 10.A
Explain the logic of planting non-Bt crop buffer
strips around fields planted with Bt crops.
Crops with
the Bt toxin
Crops without the Bt toxin


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Chapter 10

Family: ©DragonImages/Getty Images RF; cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

Genetics can explain how

Section 10.1 Cats: ©Jane Burton/Getty Images

Analyzing their genes can also

Section 10.1 Cats: ©Jane Burton/Getty Images

But most genes encode

Section 10.1 Cats: ©Jane Burton/Getty Images

Studying genetics also allows

Section 10.1 Cats: ©Jane Burton/Getty Images

Recall that DNA is wound

Section 10.1 Chromosome: ©CNRI/Science Source

Cells with only one set of

Section 10.1 Chromosome: ©CNRI/Science Source

When two haploid cells fuse

Section 10.1 Chromosome: ©CNRI/Science Source

Most cells of a mature

Section 10.1 Chromosome: ©CNRI/Science Source

Section 10.1 Chromosome: ©CNRI/Science Source

Diploid cells therefore have

Section 10.1 Chromosome: ©CNRI/Science Source

Each gene’s locus is its location

Section 10.1 Chromosome: ©CNRI/Science Source

How do meiosis, fertilization, diploid cells,

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

Gregor Mendel used pea plants

Section 10.2 Mendel: ©James King-Holmes/Science Source

Hand-pollinating plants allowed Mendel to control

Self-fertilizing and cross-fertilizing in different combinations

True-breeding plants produce offspring identical to themselves.

But the answer has to do with each

• Homozygous dominant individuals

Distinguish between dominant and

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

A gamete from the

If both gametes carry

If both gametes carry

This Punnett square

This Punnett square

Punnett squares are

Section 10.3 Boys: ©ZUMA Wire Service/Alamy

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

What is a monohybrid cross, and what are

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

A. Each germ cell only has one r allele.

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

A. Each germ cell only has one r allele.

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

How does the law of independent

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

The letters below the linkage map of this chromosome

Crossing over frequently separates y and r but rarely separates

Explain how to use crossover frequencies to

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen

If two dominant alleles

In human blood types,

The I gene also has a

In pleiotropy, one gene has multiple effects on the phenotype. For

In this example, a gene encodes a protein that catalyzes reactions

How do incomplete dominance and

Cover: © Getty Images/Mike McKen