ANATOMI SISTEM SARAF DAN

INDERA B
The Special Senses

BAMBANG SOEMANTRI
 The Five Special Senses:

• Smell and taste: chemical senses

(chemical transduction)
• Sight: light sensation (light
transduction)
• Hearing: sound perception
(mechanical transduction)
• Equilibrium: static and dynamic
balance (mechanical transduction)
 The Chemical Senses:
Taste and Smell
• The receptors for taste (gustation) and
smell (olfaction) are chemoreceptors
(respond to chemicals in an aqueous
solution)

• Chemoreception involves chemically gated

ion channels that bind to odorant or food
molecules
Taste
 3 Types of Lingual Papillae
1. Filiform papillae:
– provide friction
– do not contain taste buds
2. Fungiform papillae:
– contain 5 taste buds each
3. Circumvallate papillae:
– contain 100 taste buds each
 Location of Taste Buds

• Located mostly on
papillae of tongue

• Three of the types of

papillae:
– fungiform
– Circumvallate
– Filiform
 Taste Buds

• Each papilla contains

numerous taste buds

• Each taste bud contains

many gustatory cells

• The microvilli of gustatory

cells have chemoreceptors
for tastes
 The Five Basic Tastes

• Sweet: sugars, alcohols, some amino acids, lead salts

• Sour: H+ ions in acids
• Salty: Na+ and other metal ions
• Bitter: many substances including quinine, nicotine,
caffeine, morphine, strychnine, aspirin
• Umami: the amino acid glutamate (“beef” taste)
 Gustatory pathway

• Facial nerve (anterior 2/3 of

tongue) & Glossopharyngeal
nerve (posterior 1/3 of
tongue)solitary nucleus of
medulla (initiate PsNS reflexes
to trigger saliva & gastric
secretion)thalamusgustator
y cortex of parietal lobes
– Fibers also project to the
hypothalamus & limbic system
(enjoyment)
Influence of Other Sensations on Taste
• Taste is 80% smell
• Thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors,
nociceptors also influence tastes
• Temperature and texture enhance or detract
from taste
Smell
Both smell and taste use chemoreceptors.

Of all the senses, only smell and taste have

fibers that run to both cortical areas
And the limbic system.
 Smell
• Olfactory epithelium =
primary sensory organ
– Found on roof of nasal
cavity
– Olfactory receptors are one
of the few neurons to
renew thru adult life
(replaced ~every 60 days)
– Covered w/mucus to
dissolve airborne odor
molecules
Location of Olfactory (Odor) Receptors
 Odor Receptors

• Bipolar neurons

• Collectively constitute
cranial nerve I

• Unusual in that they

regenerate (on a ~60 day
replacement cycle)
 Olfactory receptors
• Smell is difficult to
research
• At least 1000 ‘smell
genes’ active only in
the nose
• Extremely sensitive
• Nasal cavity also
contains pain
receptors (ammonia,
chili peppers,
menthol, etc)
Olfactory receptors are bipolar neurons.

•Are replaced throughout lifetime, but lost at the

rate of about 1 % per year.

•The cilia, or olfactory hairs are the sensitive portions

•Chemical must be dissolved in watery mucus to

stimulate the receptor.

•Combinations of primary scents allow us to recognize

thousands of different odors.
 Olfactory pathway
• Olfactory nerve (axons of receptor cells)
synapse in olfactory bulb (on cribriform
plate)olfactory tract (w/in bulb)
– 1. Thalamusolfactory cortex (frontal lobe) where
smells consciously interpreted and identified
– 2. (subcortical) hypothalamus/amygdala/limbic
system to elicit emotional responses to odors
• Danger (fight or flight), appetizing (GI stimulation),
reflexes such as sneezing/choking/breathing (ammonia)
 Odors

• Very complicated

• Humans can distinguish thousands

• More than a thousand different odorant-

binding receptor molecules have been
identified

• Different combinations of specific

molecule-receptor interactions produce
different odor perceptions
 Transduction of Smell
• Binding of an odorant molecule to a specific receptor
activates a G-protein and then a second messenger (cAMP)
• cAMP causes gated Na+ and Ca2+ channels to open, leading
to depolarization

•
Anosmia: absence of the sense of smell
– Trauma
– Colds or allergies producing excessive mucus
– Polyps causing blockage
– 1/3 are from zinc deficiency

25
Vision
 Overview of the Eye
• Eye acts much like a camera
– Lens of eye adjusts to bring object into focus
– Pupil of eye constricts to allow less light to enter
in bright setting or dilates to allow more light to
enter in darker setting
– Through bending of light rays, image reaches
retina
• Sensitive nerve cell layer of eye
• Image is transmitted to brain for interpretation
 Surface Anatomy of the Eye

• Eyebrows divert sweat from the eyes and contribute to

facial expressions

• Eyelids (palpebrae) blink to protect the eye from foreign

objects and lubricate their surface

• Eyelashes detect and deter foreign objects

 Conjunctiva
• A mucous membrane lining the
inside of the eyelids and the
anterior surface of the eyes
– forms the conjunctival sac
between the eye and eyelid

• Forms a closed space when the

eyelids are closed

• Conjunctivitis (“pinkeye”):
inflammation of the conjunctival
sac
 The Lacrimal Apparatus

• Lacrimal Apparatus:
– lacrimal gland
– lacrimal sac
– nasolacrimal duct

• Rinses and lubricates the

conjunctival sac

• Drains to the nasal cavity

where excess moisture is
evaporated
 Internal Anatomy of the Eye--Tunics

• Fibrous tunic: sclera & cornea

• Vascular tunic: choroid layer

• Sensory tunic: retina

3 Layers of the Eye

Figure 17–4b
 Internal Anatomy of the Eye

• Anterior Segment contains

the Aqueous Humor
– Iris
– Ciliary Body
– Suspensory Ligament
– Lens

• Posterior Segment contains

the Vitreous Humor
3 Layers of the Eye

Figure 17–4c
 Autonomic Regulation of the Iris

Pupil Pupil
Constricts Dilates
 The Two Layers of the Retina
• Outer pigmented layer has a
single layer of pigmented cells,
attached to the choroid tunic,
which absorbs light to prevent
light scattering inside

• Inner neural layer has the

photosensory cells and various
kinds of interneurons in three
layers
 Neural Organization in the Retina
• Photoreceptors: rods (for
dim light) and cones (3
colors: blue, green and
red, for bright light)

• Bipolar cells are

connecting interneurons

• Ganglion cells’ axons

become the Optic Nerve
 Neural Organization in the Retina

• Horizontal Cells enhance

contrast (light versus dark
boundaries) and help
differentiate colors

• Amacrine cells detect

changes in the level of
illumination
 The Optic Disc

• Axons of ganglion cells exit

to form the optic nerve

• Blood vessels enter to

serve the retina by running
on top of the neural layer

• The location of the “blind

spot” in our vision
 Micrograph of the Retina
• Light must cross
through the
capillaries and the
two layers of
interneurons to reach
the photoreceptors,
the rods and cones

Light
 Opthalmoscope Image of the Retina

• The Macula Lutea (“yellow

spot”) is the center of the visual
image
• The Fovea Centralis is a central
depression where light falls
more directly on cones providing
for the sharpest image
discrimination
• Light bouncing off RBCs’
hemoglobin causes “red eye” in
flash photos
 Auditory sensations and Equilibrium

Hearing and equilibrium rely on mechanoreceptors

The ear is divided into three parts:

• Outer ear
• Middle ear
• Inner ear
 Anatomy of Ear

HEARING
HEARING &
BALANCE
ONLY
 Hearing

Sound waves > eardrum > ossicles >

oval window > set fluid in motion >
vibrations stimulate “hair cells”
Within > cochlear
Cochlear duct,
nerve transmits impulse to midbrain
membranous > is
labyrinth
Spiral
auditory cortex of Organ of
temporal Corti –
lobe
hearing receptors or “hair
cells”
Figure 8.15
•The ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes)transmit the vibratory
motion from the eardrum to the oval window. The auditory tube
allows pressure to be equalized on both sides of the eardrum.
These structures are also involved with sound transmission only.
INNER EAR : Bony chambers
• Cochlea – hearing
• Vestibule – static equilibrium
• Semicircular canals – dynamic equilibrium
•The bony labyrinth contains perilymph and membranous sacs
filled with endolymph. Within the membranous sacs of the
vestibule and semicircular canals are equilibrium receptors.
Hearing receptors are found within the membranes of the cochlea.
• Hair cells of the organ of Corti (the receptor for hearing
within the cochlea) are stimulated by sound vibrations
transmitted through air, membranes, and fluids
• Deafness is any degree of hearing loss. Conduction deafness
results when the transmission of sound vibrations through
the external and middle ears is hindered. Sensorineural
deafness occurs when there is damage to the nervous
system structures involved in hearing.
• Receptors of the semicircular canals (cristae) are dynamic
equilibrium receptors, which respond to angular or
rotational body movements. Receptors of the vestibule
(maculae) are static equilibrium receptors, which respond to
the pull of gravity and report on head position. Visual and
proprioceptor input are also necessary for normal balance.
• Symptoms of equilibrium apparatus problems include
involuntary rolling of the eyes, nausea, vertigo, and an
inability to stand erect.
Equilibrium – Balance
Static equilibrium – maintenance of body
posture relative to gravity while the body
is still.
Dynamic equilibrium – maintenance of
the body posture (mainly the head) in
response to sudden movements. Tracking
a moving object.
 Static Equilibrium

•Inside the vestibule are two chambers : utricle

and saccule.

•Regions of hair cells and supporting cells called

maculae.

•Otoliths – “ear rocks”

 Dynamic Equilibrium
•Semicircular canals
•In ampulla is the crista ampullaris – contains
hair cells and supporting cells covered by a
gelatinous mass called the cupula.
•Neurological connections between eyes and
semicircular canals – for tracking
•Nystagmus
 Dynamic Equilibrium
• Receptors found in semicircular canals
• Respond to angular or rotatory movements
• Oriented in 3 planes
• Ampulla, Crista Ampullaris, Cupula
• Movement constant rate, adapts

Figure 8.14