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NETWORKS
What is a network ?
• Is a collection of devices and end
system
• Consist of computers, servers, and
network devices such as switch and
routers that can communicate with
each others
What is a internetwork ?
• Consist of two or more network that
are connected together via a router
Simple Network
Actual Connection
Network Topology
- defines how computers, printers, network devices
and other devices are connected.
Answer : 99.994%.
Computation:
([525,600 – 30]/[525,600]) 100 = 99.994%
Part 2: Networking Model
A networking model, sometimes also called either a networking
architecture or networking blueprint, refers to a comprehensive
set of documents. Individually, each document describes one
small function required for a network; collectively, these
documents define everything that should happen for a computer
network to work. Some documents define a protocol, which is
a set of logical rules that devices must follow to communicate.
Other documents define some physical requirements for
networking. For example, a document could define the voltage
and current levels used on a particular cable when transmitting
data.
Similarly, you could build your own network—write your own
software, build your own networking cards, and so on—to create
a network. However, it is much easier to simply buy and use
products that already conform to some well-known networking
model or blueprint. Because the networking product vendors build
their products with some networking model in mind, their
products should work well together.
History Leading to TCP/IP
Today, the world of computer networking uses one networking
model: TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).
However, the world has not always been so simple. Once upon a
time, networking protocols didn’t exist, including TCP/IP. Vendors
created the first networking protocols; these protocols supported
only that vendor’s computers. For example, IBM published its
Systems Network Architecture (SNA) networking model in 1974.
Other vendors also created their own
proprietary networking models. As a result, if your company bought
computers from three vendors, network engineers often had to
create three different networks based on the networking models
created by each company, and then somehow connect those
networks, making the combined networks much more complex.
Although vendor-defined proprietary networking models often
worked well, having an open, vendor-neutral networking model
would aid competition and reduce complexity. The International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) took on the task to create
such a model, starting as early as the late 1970s, beginning work on
what would become known as the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) networking model. ISO had a noble goal for the OSI model: to
standardize data networking protocols to
allow communication between all computers across the entire planet.
ISO worked toward this ambitious and noble goal, with participants
from most of the technologically developed nations on Earth
participating in the process.
A second, less formal effort to create an open, vendor-neutral, public
networking model sprouted forth from a U.S. Department of Defense
(DoD) contract. Researchers at various universities volunteered to
help further develop the protocols surrounding the original DoD
work. These efforts resulted in a competing open networking model
called TCP/IP.
During the 1990s, companies began adding OSI, TCP/IP, or both
to their enterprise networks. However, by the end of the 1990s,
TCP/IP had become the common choice, and OSI fell away.
Six reason why OSI model is created
File Transfer
• TFTP – Trivial File Transfer Protocol is a connectionless service that uses UDP. It is
used on routers and switches to transfer configuration files and Cisco IOS
Software images, and to transfer files between systems that support TFTP
• FTP – File Transfer Protocol is designed to download files (received or gotten
from the Internet) and upload files (sent or put to the Internet)
• NFS – Network File System allows a user on a client computer to access files over
a computer network much like local storage is accessed.
Email
• SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol transports (send or receive )e-mail
messages in ASCII format using TCP
• POP3 - The Post Office Protocol - Version 3 is intended to permit a workstation to
dynamically access a maildrop on a server host in a useful fashion. Usually, it is
used to allow a workstation to retrieve mail that the server is holding for it.
Application Layer Protocols
Network Management
• SNMP – Simple Network Management Protocol facilitates the exchange of management
information between network devices. Enables network administrators to manage network
performance, find and solve network problems and plan for network growth.
• DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol- is a client/server protocol that automatically
provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address and other related configuration
information such as the subnet mask and default gateway
Name Management
• DNS – Domain Name System server is a device on a network that responds to request from
clients to translate a domain name into association IP address.
Client/Server
• HTTP/HTTPS – Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) works with World Wide, which is the
fastest-growing and most used part of the internet. Defines how web browsers can pull the
content of a web page from a web server.
Remote Login
• Telnet – Terminal Emulation software provides the capability to remotely access another
computer.
• SSH – Secure Socket Shell, is a network protocol that provides administrators with a secure
way to access a remote computer. It also refers to the suite of utilities that implement the
protocol. It provides strong authentication and secure encrypted data communications
between two computers connecting over an insecure network such as the Internet.
TFTP
FTP
NFS
SNMP and POP3
HTTP Protocol Mechanism
Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
Defines the format and organization of data. Includes
encryption.
Presentation Data Formats
Session Protocols
Network File System
Operating System
Scheduling
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
The Transport layer segments and reassembles data into a
single data stream. Services located at this layer take all the
various data received from upper-layer applications, then
combine it into the same, concise data stream. These protocols
provide end-to-end data transport services and can establish a
logical connection between the sending host and destination
host on an internetwork.
Continuing the example, the server not only acknowledges receiving the data (without
any loss), but the server decides to slide the window size a little higher. Note that second
message flowing right-to-left in the figure, this time with a window of 4000. Once the PC
receives this TCP segment, the PC realizes it can send another 4000 bytes (a slightly
larger window than the previous value).
Congestion control
If routers in the subnet can exchange x packets per
second on direct links, and there are k hops between
sender and receiver, then the most data that can be
sent is k*x packets per second (store and forward
network). Anything more than this causes congestion
in the network. One scheme is to have the sender
monitor the carrying capacity of the network by
measuring the time required for sending and
receiving an ACK for a TPDU. Then, with a capacity of
C TPDUs/second, and a round trip time of r seconds
per TPDU, the sender should be allowed a window of
C * r bytes. This keeps the pipe full. Since the network
capacity may change rapidly due to congestion, the
estimates of C and r must be continually updated.
Acknowledgement
Positive Acknowledgment with Retransmission — a technique that requires
a receiving machine to communicate with the transmitting source by
sending an acknowledgment message back to the sender when it receives
data.
TCP and UDP
Ports are used in TCP or UDP communications to name the ends of logical
connections that transfer data. For the purpose of providing services to
unknown clients, ports were created
The registered port numbers are the port numbers that companies and
other users register with the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers (ICANN) for use by the applications that communicate
using the Internet's Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP). In most cases, these applications run as
ordinary programs that can be started by nonprivileged users. The
registered port numbers are in the range from 1024 through 49151.
The data link layer defines how data is formatted from transmission and how
access to the physical media is controlled. This layer also typically includes
error correction to ensure reliable delivery of data. The data link layer
translates messages from the network layer into bits for the physical layer, and
it enables the network layer to control the interconnection of data circuits
within the physical layer. Its specifications define different network and
protocol characteristics, including physical addressing, error notification,
network topology, and sequencing of frames.
Data-link protocols provide the delivery across individual links and are
concerned with the different media types, such as 802.2 and 802.3. The data
link layer is responsible for putting 1s and 0s into a logical group. These 1s
and 0s are then put on the physical wire. Some examples of data link layer
implementations are IEEE 802.2/802.3, IEEE 802.5/802.2, packet trailer (for
Ethernet, frame check sequence [FCS], or cyclic redundancy check [CRC]),
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), High-
Level Data Link Control (HDLC), and Frame Relay.
Data Link Layer two sublayers
The high-order bit is the Individual/Group (I/G) bit. When it has a value of 0, we can
assume that the address is the MAC address of a device and that it may well appear in
the source portion of the MAC header. When it’s a 1, we can assume that the address
represents either a broadcast or multicast address in Ethernet.
The next bit is the global/local bit, sometimes called the G/L bit or U/L bit, where U
means universal. When set to 0, this bit represents a globally administered address, as
assigned by the IEEE, but when it’s a 1, it represents a locally governed and
administered address.
Parts of a MAC Address
Physical Layer
EIA/TIA
V.35
Most common IEEE Ethernet standards
10Base-T (IEEE 802.3) 10 Mbps using category 3 unshielded twisted pair (UTP) wiring
for runs up to 100 meters. Unlike with the 10Base-2 and 10Base-5 networks, each
device must connect into a hub or switch, and you can have only one host per segment
or wire. It uses an RJ45 connector (8-pin modular connector) with a physical star
topology and a logical bus.
100Base-TX (IEEE 802.3u) 100Base-TX, most commonly known as Fast Ethernet, uses
EIA/TIA category 5, 5E, or 6 UTP two-pair wiring. One user per segment; up to 100
meters long. It uses an RJ45 connector with a physical star topology and a logical bus.
100Base-FX (IEEE 802.3u) Uses fiber cabling 62.5/125-micron multimode fiber. Point
to-point topology; up to 412 meters long. It uses ST and SC connectors, which are
media interface connectors.
1000Base-T (IEEE 802.3ab) Category 5, four-pair UTP wiring up to 100 meters long
and up to 1 Gbps.
Most common IEEE Ethernet standards
1000Base-LX (IEEE 802.3z) Single-mode fiber that uses a 9-micron core and 1300
nm laser and can go from 3 kilometers up to 10 kilometers.
A PDU can include different information as it goes up or down the OSI model.
It is given a different name according to the information it is carrying (the layer
where it is located). When the transport layer receives upper-layer data, it
adds a TCP header to the data; this is called a segment. The segment is then
passed to the network layer, and an IP header is added; thus, the data
becomes a packet. The packet is passed to the data link layer,
thus becoming a frame. This frame is then converted into bits and is passed
across the network medium.
A directly connected network is a network that is directly attached to one of the router
interfaces. When a router’s interface is configured with an IP address and subnet mask,
the interface becomes a host on that attached network. The network address and subnet
mask of the interface, along with the interface type and number, are entered into the
routing table as a directly connected network. When a router forwards a packet to a
host such as a web server, that host is on the same network as a router’s directly
connected network. A remote network is a network that is not directly connected to
the router. In other words, a remote network is a network that can only be reached by
sending the packet to another router. Remote networks are added to the routing table
using a dynamic routing protocol or by configuring static routes.
Resource Usage Use CPU, memory and link No extra resources needed
bandwidth
The classful routing protocols, RIPv1 and IGRP, are legacy protocols and are only
used in older networks. These routing protocols have evolved into the classless
routing protocols, RIPv2 and EIGRP, respectively. Link-state routing protocols are
classless by nature.
Dynamic Routing
hierarchical view of dynamic routing protocol
classification.
Dynamic Routing
IGP and EGP Routing Protocols (3.1.4.2)
An autonomous system (AS) is a collection of routers under a
common administration such as a company or an organization.
An AS is also known as a routing domain. Typical examples of
an AS are a company’s internal network and an ISP’s network.
The Internet is based on the AS concept; therefore, two types
of routing protocols are required:
•Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP): Used for routing within an
AS. It is also referred to as intra-AS routing. Companies,
organizations, and even service providers use an IGP on their
internal networks. IGPs include RIP, EIGRP, OSPF, and IS-IS.
•Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP): Used for routing between
autonomous systems. It is also referred to as inter-AS routing.
Service providers and large companies may interconnect
using an EGP. The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the only
currently viable EGP and is the official routing protocol used
by the Internet.
Dynamic Routing
five individual autonomous systems in the
scenario:
Dynamic Routing
Routing Protocol Characteristics (3.1.4.7)
Routing protocols can be compared based on the following characteristics:
•Speed of convergence: Speed of convergence defines how quickly the routers in
the network topology share routing information and reach a state of consistent
knowledge. The faster the convergence, the more preferable the protocol. Routing
loops can occur when inconsistent routing tables are not updated due to slow
convergence in a changing network.
•Scalability: Scalability defines how large a network can become, based on the
routing protocol that is deployed. The larger the network is, the more scalable the
routing protocol needs to be.
•Classful or classless (use of VLSM): Classful routing protocols do not include the
subnet mask and cannot support variable-length subnet mask (VLSM). Classless
routing protocols include the subnet mask in the updates. Classless routing protocols
support VLSM and better route summarization.
•Resource usage: Resource usage includes the requirements of a routing protocol
such as memory space (RAM), CPU utilization, and link bandwidth utilization. Higher
resource requirements necessitate more powerful hardware to support the routing
protocol operation, in addition to the packet forwarding processes.
•Implementation and maintenance: Implementation and maintenance describes
the level of knowledge that is required for a network administrator to implement and
maintain the network based on the routing protocol deployed.
Dynamic Routing
Dynamic Routing
Routing Protocol Metrics (3.1.4.8)
There are cases when a routing protocol learns of more than
one route to the same destination. To select the best path, the
routing protocol must be able to evaluate and differentiate
between the available paths. This is accomplished through the
use of routing metrics.
A metric is a measurable value that is assigned by the routing
protocol to different routes based on the usefulness of that
route. In situations where there are multiple paths to the same
remote network, the routing metrics are used to determine the
overall “cost” of a path from source to destination. Routing
protocols determine the best path based on the route with the
lowest cost.
Different routing protocols use different metrics. The metric
used by one routing protocol is not comparable to the metric
used by another routing protocol. Two different routing
protocols might choose different paths to the same destination.
Dynamic Routing
Dynamic Routing
Metric Parameters
Hop Count: A simple metric that counts the number of
routers a packet must traverse
Bandwidth: Influence path selection by preferring the
path with the highest bandwidth
Load: Considers the traffic utilization of a certain link
Delay: Considers the time a packet takes to traverse a
path
Reliability: Assess the probability of a link failure,
calculated from the interface error count or previous link
failures
Cost: A value determine either by the IOS or by the
network administrator to indicate preference for a route.
Cost can represent a metric or combination of metrics or
a policy
Dynamic Routing
After the routers have initially learned about remote networks, routing protocols must
maintain the routing tables so that they have the most current routing information.
Even though none of the routers have new information to share, periodic updates
are sent anyway. The term periodic updates refers to the fact that a router sends the
complete routing table to its neighbors at a predefined interval. For RIP, these
updates are sent every 30 seconds as a broadcast (255.255.255.255), whether or
not there has been a topology change. This 30 - second interval is a route update
timer that also aids in tracking the age of routing information in the routing table.
• periodic updates refers to the fact that a router sends the complete routing table
to its neighbors at a predefined interval. For RIP, these updates are sent every 30
seconds as a broadcast (255.255.255.255), whether or not there has been a
topology change. This 30- second interval is a route update timer that also aids
in tracking the age of routing information in the routing table.
• Bounded Updates
EIGRP uses updates that are
■ Nonperiodic, because they are not sent out on a regular basis
■ Partial, because they are sent only when there is a change in topology that
bounded so that only those routers that need the information are updated
• Triggered updates are sent when one of the following events occurs:
■ An interface changes state (up or down).