Handout

Komunikasi Media Global

 Development of Media Approaches

• Media as living organism, or

in Herbert Spencer term
“organic society”

• From propagating, to
political economy and
cultural studies (values and
meaning)
 Theoretical Approaches
• Free Flow of Information
• Modernization Theory
• Dependency Theory
• Structural Imperialism
• Hegemony
• Critical Theory
• The Public Sphere
• Theories of Information Society
• Discourse of Globalization
• Political Economy
Free Flow of Information
• Free flow doctrine was essentially
a part of the liberal, free market
discourse that championed the
right of media to sell wherever
and whatever they wished.

• The doctrine show antipathy

toward state regulation and
censorship of the media
 Free Flow of Information
The Role of Free Flow Doctrine:
1. Political: Media as public
watchdog
2. Economic: assisted in advertising
and marketing goods and service
3. Cold War: to ensure the
continuing and unreciprocated
influence of western ideological
battle.
 Modernization Theory
• International communication was the
key to the process of modernization
and development for the so-called
“Third World”

• Contact with the media helped the

process of transition from ‘traditional’
to a ‘modernized’ state (Lerner)

• In 1970, media development use as

indicator of societal development
 Modernization Theory
• The theory of modernization
meant a reconstruction of the
international division of labor
amalgamating the non-western
world into emerging
international structural
hierarchy
(Vincent Mosco, 1996)
 Dependency Theory
• Dependency theory aimed to provide
an alternative framework to analyze
international communication

• TNC, most based in North, exercise

control over the developing countries

• Media maintain dominance for the

suitable relation of ‘dependent
development’
 Dependency Theory:
Critics to Cultural Imperialism

• ‘Hypodermic-needle
model’ of media ignored
the complexities of the
third-world culture
(Sreberny-Mohammadi,
1991)
 Structural Imperialism
• Structural Imperialism as a
sophisticated type of dominance
relation which cuts across nation
basing itself on a bridgehead…for
the joint of benefit of both (Galtung)

• Harmony of interest between the

core and periphery nation, so the
dominance is taken without
question
 Structural and Cultural Imperialism
• Five type of
imperialism: economic,
political, military, N N
communication, and
culture

• Basic mechanism of
S S
Imperialism: Vertical
and Feudal
 Hegemony
• ‘Dominant social group in a
society has the capacity to
exercise intellectual and
alliances to support its
aims to build a consent by
ideological control of
culture production and
distribution’ (Gramsci)
 Critical Theory
and ‘the Culture Industry’
• Analyzing the industrial production of
cultural goods – film, radio,
programmes, music and magazine –
used by capitalist society toward
producing culture as commodity

• This condition led to deterioration of

the philosophical role of culture
(Adorno, Hokheimer)
 The Public Sphere
• The media freedom stimulate
public into ‘rational-
acceptable policies’

• But this condition lead to

refeudalization of the media
system which only become
monopoly of capitalist
borguise class
 Cultural Studies Perspective

• The cultural studies

approach give voice to
issues such race,
ethnicity, gender, and
sexuality

• Identity shape by media

 Information Society: Technological
Determinism
• Analyze impact of media
technology on society. Mcluhan,
arguing that, ‘the medium is the
message’

• The new technology have

contributed to the decline of
ideology (from conceptual to
iconic symbolism)
 Discourse of Globalization
• In this dominant view of globalization, the
expansion of information and communication
technologies coupled with market-led liberal
democracies are contributing to the creation
of what has been called a global civil society,
though others have identified tension
between globalization and fragmentation
(Clark)
 Critical Political-Economy
• The critical political
economic tradition
describing the transition of
world communication order
led by transnational
business and supported by
their respective state
increasingly linked in global
structure
 Discourse on Journalism Ethics
• Defining New
• The Structure of Global News
• The Big Five Agency
• Regimes for International News
• The CNN Effects
• ‘Understanding News’
• Comparison Ethics: Europe and
Muslims World

4/15/2019
 News Defined
“News in most media system seems to be defined as
the exceptional event, making ‘coups and
catastrophes’ newsworthy wherever they occur.”

• This particular definition of news controls the way

journalist decide what is important

• The logical extension is that even if the personnel and

organizations relaying international news become
more diverse and there is no guarantee that the coups
and earthquakes syndrome will go. What must
changed also is the definition of news

4/15/2019
 “Newsworthy”

The recognition of the power of

news values and the role of
restriction, do not mean,
however, the factors such as
ethnocentrism, racism and
ideology, do not color
international news.

4/15/2019
 The Big Five
• New Agency are
organizations which employ a
number of correspondents in
diverse geographic areas to
report news to a central
location where, for fee, it is
then disseminated by
electronics or by others
mean.

• Associated Press (AP), United

Press International (UPI),
Agence France-Presse (AFP),
Reuters, Information
Telegraph Agency of Russia
(ITAR)

4/15/2019
 The Counter Flow
• Antara is a state-owned
enterprise (Badan Usaha Milik
Negara) under the Ministry of
State-owned Enterprises

• Antara, and others news agency

in developing countries, often
trapped in western newsworthy
perspective
(melansir)

• Counter-Flow: Al-Jazeera

4/15/2019
 A Regime for International News

• International Law Against

Propaganda

• Protection of Journalist

• Protection from Censorship

• A balance and Just Global Flow

4/15/2019
 The CNN Effect
• The term “CNN Effect” encapsulate
the idea that real time
communication technology could
provoke major responses from
domestic audience and political
elites to global event

• The new technology of media

reduce calm deliberation over
policy, policy makers focuses on
issues on the media

• Create ideological bond between

policy makers and journalist

4/15/2019
 Manufacturing Consent
• Executive version
this insist that media report
conform to what might loosely be
called official agenda

• Elite version
news media conform with the
interest of political elites, where
elites are defined broadly as
member of executive, legislative
or other politically powerful group

4/15/2019
 ‘Understanding News’
• Newsroom and
Residing Empathy journalist construct
stories that may be
completely
misleading – may in
fact be lies.

• News is also
commodity, subject
to market pressure,
and always changing.

4/15/2019
 Journalism Ethics

• Formal Journalism ethics

laid down ethic codes is
merely part of a view
concerning journalism
ethic in certain countries

• Informal discourse on
journalism ethics
exist in journalist
communities and public
debate

4/15/2019
 Comparing Journalism Ethics
Middle East Codes

• Truth and Objectivity

• Privacy and Publicness
• Freedom
• Internationalism
• Tradition, Mores and Religion

“Middle eastern and islamic codes

mention international aspect
of journalism more frequently
than european code, but they
often reveal a defensive
culture.”

4/15/2019
 Contra-Flow and Resistence:
Big World on Small Screen

• Some developing media

outside western
structure:
– Middle East Broadcast
Center
– Phoenix Channel
– TV Globo (for exporting
telenovelas)
Contra-Flow and Resistence:
Big World on Small Screen

• The increase flow and

Political use of Television:
– Hugo Chavez three hours face
to face
– Soap opera “Unfinished
Struggle” of Mahatir
Muhammad
– MED-TV with Kurds Language is
operated in London, is the
world largest stateless nation
coverage
 Contra-Flow and Resistence:
Plurality of Opinion

• Privatization of media industry in

many states (examples: Turkey,
Indonesia)
• Multi-partyism and liberal press

The publishing company

(McGraw Hill, Prentice Hall,
Penguin), also national coverage
publisher
 Contra-Flow and
Global Culture’s Discontent

• The rise of cultural identity lead to

anti-western cultural backlash:
– Westoxification in Iran
– The ideological revival of Hindutva
– Critics on Women Representation on
western media
– Distortion in Representation of non-
western cultures in global media
 Contra-Flow and
Global Culture’s Discontent

• The resistence:
– Bring tradition, cultural and
religious values on TV
(Mahabaratha and Ramayana),
also the revival of Beijing Opera
– High-rating of local/national
programs
– Anti-western rhetoric symbolism
in doll (Sara in Iran, Leila in Arab,
Amina in Bosnia)
 Global Contra-flow
of Television

• The ‘diasporic public sphere” represent

southern media which are becoming
visible across the globe.

• Culture of diaspora (the flow of people

between states), also lead to contra-flow

• Deterritorialization and “between

culture” lifestyle brought Hibridity on
screen
 Alternative Media
as Counter Public Sphere

The Inclusive Public The Manipulated

Sphere Public Sphere

The Critical Public Sphere

(as ideal form of Active
Communication)
 Defining Alternative Media

• The community media approaches that

community participation in content
production is central
• The content of media is alternative to
mainstream media
• Approaches of civil society as counter-
hegemonic and third voice between state
media and commercial market
• Link protest and movement of local and
global to the market/state with
independent relation
 Characteristic of
Alternative Media
• The critical content (counter mainstream)

• The critical form (theatre, literature, visual

art, film, music, concerts)

• Alternative media that are based only on

critical form are functionless (Adorno,
1973), therefore both must be presented
simultaniously