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UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Notes-02

Course Title: THERMODYNAMICS—I


Course Code: 121
Entry-2017

Tutor: Khalid Masood Khan


1
Most of the notes’ contents are adapted from the following classic text on
Engineering Thermodynamics:
TD Eastop and A McConkey: Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists,
© 1986 Longman Group Ltd, New York.

1
It relates to notes taught last time. The books and the course contents derived therefrom may change as class-notes
evolve over time.
The Principle of Conservation of Energy
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed.

• The First Law of Thermodynamics is merely one statement of this general principle with particular
reference to heat and work.

Note
Don’t confuse the 1st law with energy conservation. The latter connotes preservation of quality of energy! This concept is akin more
to the 2nd law.
• Change in 𝑢 as system (working fluid) changes from state-1 to state-2 is ∆𝑢 =
𝑢2 − 𝑢1 .

gain in internal energy = net heat supplied − net work done = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1

i.e. 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = σ21 𝛿𝑄 − σ21 𝛿𝑊

• This equation is true for a process or a series of processes between state-1


and state-2 provided there is no flow of fluid into or out of the system (closed
system/control mass).
Rules

• In any one non-flow process there will be either heat supplied or heat rejected, but not both;
similarly there will be either work output or work input, but not both.

• According to the convention (to be followed throughout this course), heat supplied to the system is
positive, work done by the system is positive.
• Applying above rules reduces the equation, 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = σ21 𝛿𝑄 − σ21 𝛿𝑊, to:

𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 for a non − flow process

i.e. 𝑄 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑊

or, on per 𝑘𝑔 basis, 𝑄 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑊 −−−− − 2

• Eqn-2 is called the non-flow energy equation. In differential form:

𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝛿𝑊 −−−− − 3

Note
Equations (1, 2 and 3) are true whether the process is reversible or irreversible. These are energy equations [energy
is conserved!].
Example-2

Statement
In the compression stroke of an internal-combustion engine the heat rejected to the cooling water is
45 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 and the work input is 90 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔. Calculate the change in specific internal energy of the
working fluid stating whether it is a gain or a loss.
Solution

𝑄 = − 45 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 (−𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)


𝑊 = − 90 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 (−𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡)

Applying eqn-2:
𝑄 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑊
∴ −45 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 − 90 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = +90 − 45 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 = 45 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔

∴ gain in specific internal energy = 45 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔


Example-3

Statement
In the cylinder of an air motor, the compressed air has a specific internal energy of 420 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 at the
beginning of the expansion and a specific internal energy of 200 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 after expansion. Calculate the
heat flow to or from the cylinder when the work done by the air during the expansion is 100 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 .
Solution

Applying eqn-2:

𝑄 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑊

∴Q= 200 − 420 + 100 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔


= −220 + 100 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 = −120 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

i.e. ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = +120 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔


Reversible Non-Flow Process

Reversible work, as discussed in Notes-01, is


2

𝑊 = න 𝑝𝑑𝜈
1
or, in differential form,
𝛿𝑊 = 𝑝𝑑𝜈

Substituting in eqn-3,
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝𝑑𝜈 −−−− − 4
• Substituting the expression for reversible work in eqn-2 gives:

𝑄 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + න 𝑝𝑑𝜈 −−−− − 5
1

• 𝛿𝑊 is an inexact differential (path function) replaced by 𝑝𝑑𝜈, an exact differential


(point function).

• Heat and work are path functions; both depend on the particular process (path).

• System property is a point function; it depends only on the state point, never on
the history (process/path) about how the system state has been reached.
The Steady Flow Energy Equation

• Let 1𝑘𝑔 of a fluid with specific internal energy, 𝑢, is moving with velocity 𝐶 and is a height 𝑍 above a
datum level. In this condition, it possesses a total energy, 𝑢 + 𝐶 2 Τ2 + 𝑍𝑔, where 𝐶 2 Τ2 is the kinetic
energy of 1𝑘𝑔 of fluid and 𝑍𝑔 is the potential energy of 1𝑘𝑔 of fluid.

• In most applications of engineering interest, the rate at which fluid flows through a piece of machinery,
equipment or apparatus, is constant.

• This type of flow is called steady flow.


• Another way, the rate of mass flow of fluid at any section in steady flow is the same as at any
other section.
• Fig-2 shows the fluid flowing steadily through an apparatus. It is an example of an open system
(control volume). The boundary (control surface) is shown cutting the inlet pipe at section-1 and
the outlet pipe at section-2.
• Let 𝑄 units of heat per kg of fluid are supplied to the fluid while fluid does 𝑊 units of work per kg
as it flows through the apparatus.
• Now in order to introduce 1𝑘𝑔 of fluid across the boundary at inlet, an expenditure of energy is
required.
• Similarly, in order to push 1𝑘𝑔 of fluid across the boundary at exit, an expenditure of energy is required.
• The inlet section is shown enlarged in fig-3. Consider an element of fluid, length 𝑙, and let the cross-
sectional area of the inlet pipe be 𝐴1 .

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 × 𝑙


= 𝑝1 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 of fluid 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
∴ 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 for 1𝑘𝑔 of fluid = 𝑝1 𝜈1

• Similarly, it can be shown that


𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑢𝑠ℎ 1𝑘𝑔 of fluid 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 𝑝2 𝜈2
Energy entering the system (i.e. apparatus):
1. u1 + C12 Τ2 + Z1 g, energy of fluid as it approaches the apparatus at inlet
2. p1 ν1 , energy required to push fluid into the apparatus at inlet
3. Q, heat supplied across the boundary as fluid flows through the apparatus
Energy that enters at inlet and that transferred as heat across the boundary
= 𝐈𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝟏 + 𝐈𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝟐 + 𝐈𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝟑

Energy leaving the system (i.e. apparatus):


1. u2 + C22 Τ2 + Z2 g, energy of fluid as it is about to leave the apparatus at outlet
2. p2 ν2 , energy required to push fluid out of the apparatus at outlet
3. W, work done across the boundary by fluid as it flows through the apparatus

Energy that leaves at outlet and that transferred as work output across the boundary
= 𝐈𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝟏 + 𝐈𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝟐 + 𝐈𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝟑
• For steady flow (fluid, heat and/or work), it is possible to write the following balance equation [1st
law of thermodynamics]:

𝑢1 + 𝐶12 Τ2 + 𝑍1 𝑔 + 𝑝1 𝜈1 + 𝑄 = 𝑢2 + 𝐶22 Τ2 + 𝑍2 𝑔 + 𝑝2 𝜈2 + 𝑊 −−−− − 6

• Further simplifications are possible depending on the applications.

• The sum of specific internal energy, 𝑢, and the term, 𝑝𝜈, is given the symbol, ℎ, and is called specific
enthalpy.

𝑖. 𝑒. specific enthalpy = ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑝𝜈 −−−− − 7


• Substituting eqn-7 in eqn-6, omitting potential energy terms (usually small), gives:

ℎ1 + 𝐶12 Τ2 + 𝑄 = ℎ2 + 𝐶22 Τ2 + 𝑊 −−−− − 8

• Eqn-8 is called steady-flow energy equation. Since enthalpy is a system property, it can be
introduced into any problem whether the process is a flow process or a non-flow process.
• Elaborating more on steady flow, consider now any section of cross-
sectional area where the fluid velocity is 𝐶, then the volume flow past the
section is 𝐶𝐴.

• Dividing 𝐶𝐴 by specific volume, 𝜈, gives the constant quantity that defines


steady flow, i.e. mass flow rate,

𝑚ሶ = 𝐶𝐴Τ𝜈 = 𝜌𝐶𝐴 −−−− − 9


where 𝜌 is density of fluid at the section.

• Eqn-9 is known as continuity of mass equation.


Example 4
Statement
In the turbine of a gas turbine unit, the gases flow through the turbine at 17 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 and the power
developed by the turbine is 14000 𝑘𝑊. The enthalpies of the gases at inlet and outlet are 1200 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
and 360 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 respectively, and the velocities of the gases at inlet and outlet are 60 𝑚Τ𝑠 and 150 𝑚Τ𝑠
respectively. Calculate the rate at which heat is rejected from the turbine. Find also the area of the inlet
pipe given that the specific volume of the gases at inlet is 0.5 𝑚3 Τ𝑘𝑔.
Solution
Fig-4 shows diagram of the turbine.
Rewriting equation 8, gives: ℎ1 + 𝐶12 Τ2 + 𝑄 = ℎ2 + 𝐶22 Τ2 + 𝑊
𝑚 2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 2
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶12 Τ2 = 60 2 Τ2 2 = 1800
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑠 2
𝑚
𝑘𝑔. 𝑚 𝑁𝑚 𝐽 𝑘𝐽
= 1800 𝑠2 = 1800 = 1800 = 1.8
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶22 Τ2
𝑘𝐽
= 2.5 × 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 2.5 1.8
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
= 11.25
𝑘𝑔
14000 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑠
work output = 𝑊 = = 823.5 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
17 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠
Substituting values in eqn-8:
1200 + 1.8 + 𝑄 = 360 + 11.25 + 823.5
∴ 𝑄 = −7.02 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
heat rejected = +7.02 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 = 7.02 × 17 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑠 = 119.3 𝑘𝑊
From eqn-9,
𝑚ሶ = 𝐶𝐴Τ𝜈
𝑚𝜈

∴ 𝐴=
𝐶
17 × 0.5
∴ 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴1 = 𝑚2 = 0.142 𝑚2
60
Example 5
Statement
Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.4 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠 through an air compressor, entering at 6 𝑚Τ𝑠 with a pressure
of 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 and a specific volume of 0.85 𝑚3 Τ𝑘𝑔, and leaving at 4.5 𝑚Τ𝑠 with a pressure of 6.9 𝑏𝑎𝑟 and a
specific volume of 0.16 𝑚3 Τ𝑘𝑔. The specific internal energy of the air leaving is 88 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 greater than
that of the air entering. Cooling water in a jacket surrounding the cylinder absorbs heat from the air at
the rate of 59 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑠. Calculate the power required to drive the compressor, and the inlet and the outlet
cross-sectional areas.
Solution
Omitting the potential energy terms in steady-flow energy, eqn-6:
𝑢1 + 𝐶12 Τ2 + 𝑝1 𝜈1 + 𝑄 = 𝑢2 + 𝐶22 Τ2 + 𝑝2 𝜈2 + 𝑊 −−−− −(𝑎)
Fig-5 is a diagrammatic representation of the compressor. Heat rejected across the
boundary is equivalent to heat removed by the cooling water from the compressor.
𝐶12 Τ2 = 6 × 6 Τ2 𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 = 0.018 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
𝐶22 Τ2 = 4.5 × 4.5 Τ2 𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 = 0.0101 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
1×105
𝑝1 𝜈1 = × 0.85 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 = 85 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
103
6.9×105
𝑝2 𝜈2 = × 0.16 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 = 110.4 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
103
𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 88 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 −59 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 = −59 = = −147.5
𝑠 0.4 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

Rearranging eq-(a) for work done:


𝐶12 𝐶22
𝑊 = 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 + 𝑝1 𝜈1 − 𝑝2 𝜈2 + − +𝑄
2 2
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑊 = −88 + 85 − 110.4 + 0.018 − 0.0101 − 147.5 = −260.9
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = +260.9
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = +260.9 × 0.4 = +104.4 = +104.4 𝑘𝑊
𝑘𝑔 𝑠 𝑠
𝐶𝐴
From eqn-9, 𝑚ሶ =
𝜈

𝑚𝜈
i.e. 𝐴=
𝐶

For the condition at compressor inlet,


𝑚𝜈
ሶ 1 0.4 × 0.85
𝐴1 = = 𝑚2 = 0.057 𝑚2
𝐶1 6
i.e. inlet pipe cross-sectional area = 0.057 𝑚2
Similarly, for the conditions at compressor outlet,
𝑚𝜈
ሶ 2 0.4 × 0.16
𝐴2 = = 𝑚2 = 0.014 𝑚2
𝐶2 4.5
i.e. outlet pipe cross-sectional area = 0.014 𝑚2

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