Academic Writing

Week 2 - Semester 1, 2018

Sentence Types and Structure

Peter Cahill

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Acknowledgement of Country

The University of the Sunshine Coast acknowledges the

Traditional Custodians of the land on which the campus stands,
and recognises the strength, resilience and capacity of Elders
past, present and emerging.

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Course Objectives
By the end of this workshop you should have:

1. An enhanced awareness of the features of academic writing

2. Developed knowledge of the structure of academic writing
3. Built skills relating to objective, evidence-based writing
4. Applied learning by practising those skills

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Review - formal vs. informal writing
true or false?

Contractions can be used in formal writing.

Direct questions should not be used in formal writing.

The following sentences are formal:

1. Recently, teachers have not made much progress in getting better literacy
results. T/F
2. The GDP in Australia has gone up by 3% since 2002. T/F
3. Correct grammar is an integral part of academic writing. T/F
4. In Australia, we get a lot of fines for traffic infringements. T/F
5. The liquid became solid as the temperature was lowered. T/F
6. The study doesn’t bring good evidence and therefore its conclusions are
doubtful. T/F

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Revision
Formal vs informal writing – true or false?

1. Contractions can be used in formal writing. F

2. Direct questions should not be used in formal writing. T

The following sentences are formal:

3. Recently, Teachers have not recently made much little progress in getting
better improving literacy results. F
4. The GDP in Australia has gone up increased by 3% since 2002. F
5. Correct grammar is an integral part of academic writing. T
6. In Australia, we get a lot of fines for traffic infringements. F
The quantity/volume of fines for traffic infringements is considerable in
Australia.
7. The liquid became solid (solidified) as the temperature was lowered. T
8. The study doesn’t does not bring provide good solid evidence and
therefore its conclusions are doubtful. F
 Avoid being vague (e.g. The rabbits were drastically reduced by the drought.).
Be precise (e.g. The rabbit population was reduced by 76% during the drought).
OR
(The weight of the rabbits substantially reduced during the drought.)

Avoid possessives (e.g. Today’s youth;

Avoid phrasal verbs (e.g. used up; run out). student’s learning).
Use formal verbs (e.g. depleted; expired) 1. Use the noun of noun (e.g. the
youth of today)
Avoid exclamation marks! or Use a noun phrase (e.g. student
question marks? unless they learning)
are part of a quote. Formal writing
quick tips Avoid verb contractions (e.g. we’ll or
can’t). Use the full form (e.g. we will;
Avoid using OK.
cannot).
Use formal vocabulary (e.g.
satisfactory; acceptable) Avoid beginning sentences with numerals
(e.g. 20 students attended).
1. Begin the sentence without a number
Avoid abbreviations (etc; e.g.; i.e.). (e.g. There were 20 students in
1. Use a summary phrase instead of etc attendance).
(‘and other electronic devices’) 2. Spell the number (e.g. Twenty students
2. Use the full form (for example; that is) attended).
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Sentence structure
Why is it important to understand how to construct
sentences?

Because they do complex work in academic writing. A

single sentence can (and often should) do multiple jobs:
For example:
inform
explain
define
argue
persuade
rebut

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What are your impressions?
A. Despite the importance of writing at university and the need to write
effectively in the business and professional world, students seem not to
realise the necessity of learning the process of writing, which is essential
in creating powerful writing, even though this process is enhanced
greatly by computers and word processing programs.

B. Writing is important at university. People in the business and

professional world also need to write effectively. It is important to learn
the process of writing. Students do not seem to realise this. Knowing the
process of writing is essential in creating powerful writing. The writing
process is enhanced greatly by computers and word processing
programs.

C. Writing effectively is important at university and in professional contexts.

Developing the range of skills involved in the writing process helps
create powerful writing.

Adapted from Johnson 2003, p. 73

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What is the main idea of this sentence? How do you know?
Despite the importance
of writing at university
and the need
to write effectively
in the business and professional world,
students seem not to realise
the necessity of learning
the process of writing,
which is essential
in creating powerful writing,
even though this process
is enhanced greatly
by computers and word processing programs.
Grammar of the sample sentence
none of these parts of the sentence
can stand alone as a complete idea
because they form a compound noun
phrase beginning with the
subordinate conjunction ‘despite’
The main idea can stand alone
because it is an independent clause.
none of these parts of the sentence
can stand alone as a complete idea
because they form dependent clauses
beginning with the subordinate
conjunctions ‘which’ & ‘even though’.
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Evaluation of the sentence
Despite the importance
of writing at university
and the need
to write effectively
in the business and professional world,
students seem not to realise
the necessity of learning
the process of writing,
which is essential
in creating powerful writing,
even though this process
is enhanced greatly
by computers and word processing programs.
The main idea is obscured
because five ideas (depending
on your interpretation) are
piled together almost
randomly and therefore
treated equally.
The sentence lacks logical
development of ideas.
The last idea is a logical
mismatch because it switches
irrationally from general to
specific. Technically, it is the
wrong level of discourse (the
level of abstraction).
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A Subordinating coordinator
conjunction
Despite the importance of writing at university and the need to write
effectively in the business and professional world, students seem not to
realise the necessity of learning the process of writing, which is essential in
creating powerful writing, even though this process is enhanced greatly by
computers and word processing programs.
Subordinator for
adjective clause

If long sentences are poorly written, they may make it difficult to

process the information because the relationships between the
ideas in the sentence are not well organised.

Obscuring the important idea(s) can make writing less powerful.

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 Clauses are the building blocks of sentences
Independent clause
- has a subject and a predicate
- the predicate must contain at least a verb
- expresses a complete idea
- can stand alone as a sentence
Water boils.
Water boils at 100°C.
Water boils at 100°C at sea level.
Freshwater in Australia boils at 100°C at sea
level.
Dependent clause
- has a subject and a predicate
- the predicate must contain at least a verb
- begins with a subordinator
- does not express a complete thought
- cannot stand alone (= fragment)
because water boils
when water boils
although water boils at 100° C
that water boils
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B
Short simple
sentences can grab
Writing is important at university. the attention of the
audience, but using
People in the business and professional world
too many may
also need to write effectively. sound boring,
It is important to learn the process of writing. childish, abrupt and
choppy. Creating
Students do not seem to realise this.
relationships and
Knowing the process of writing ‘flow’ between
is essential in creating powerful writing. ideas is difficult to
The writing process achieve by using
only short, simple
is enhanced greatly sentences.
by computers and word processing programs.

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 C

Writing effectively
is important at university
and in professional contexts. Carefully constructed,
logically developed
sentences build
Developing the range of skills credible, powerful and
fluent text.
involved in the writing process
helps create powerful writing.

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 Academic writing generally uses
longer
and more complex sentences
with varied clauses
in order to describe
complex ideas and abstract concepts.

So, how are effective and fluent sentences constructed?

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 Clauses and phrases
A clause must contain at least a subject and a verb

NB* (Counter example) Phrases

Phrases do not contain both a subject and a verb (in other
words, they are not clauses).
• A space for a university campus [missing a verb]
• Close to town [missing both a subject and a verb]
• Is necessary [missing a subject]

If you combine these three separate phrases you can make a sentence.

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Quick quiz…
What are the two types of clauses?
How are they the same?
How are they different?

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Quick quiz…
What are the two types of clauses?
independent clauses and dependent clauses

How are they the same?

they both contain at least a subject and a verb

How are they different?

Independent clause Dependent clause
= complete idea = not a complete idea
= is a sentence = contains a subordinating conjunction
= must be attached to an independent clause
to make a sentence

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 Parts of a sentence
Activity 1. Identify:
• the subject (who or what the clause is about) and predicate (comment about the who/what) with its
verb
• independent or dependent clauses (and any subordinating conjunctions)
Indep. Daylight saving has positive and negative effects
Dep. Although there is no certain method to measure the effects
1. During the months of daylight saving, there is no conclusive
saving of energy
2. The change of time can be detrimental to an individual’s health
3. As productivity in the workforce can be considerably decreased
4. Economic factors play a vital role in the political decision
making process
5. Because farmers object to the introduction of daylight saving for
animal welfare reasons, not just economic motives
6. Even though no statistical relevance has emerged in terms
of an increase in traffic accidents
Adapted from: Oshima & Hogue 2006, p. 163

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 Answers
• the subject and predicate with its verb
• independent or dependent clauses (and any subordinating conjunctions)

Indep. Daylight saving has positive and negative effects.

Dep. Although there is no certain method to measure the effects …
Indep. During the months of daylight saving, there is no conclusive
saving of energy.
Indep. The change of time can be detrimental to an individual’s health.
Dep. As productivity in the workforce can be considerably
decreased …
Indep. Economic factors play a vital role in the political decision
making process.
Dep. … because farmers object to the introduction of daylight
saving for animal welfare reasons, not just economic motives.
Dep. Even though no statistical relevance has emerged in terms
of an increase in traffic accidents …

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Sentence types
Every sentence consists of one or more clauses and
expresses a complete idea or thought.
There are four sentence types:

1. Simple
2. Compound
3. Complex
4. Compound-complex
Clauses and sentences
I searched the databases for articles.
(the whole sentence is one independent clause) Simple sentence

I searched the databases and I found eight articles.

(2 independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction) Compound sentence

If I went to the library, I could find relevant articles.

(1 dependent clause beginning with a subordinating conjunction plus 1 independent
clause)
Complex sentence

If I went to the library, I could find relevant articles and I could

use the printer there.
(2 independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction plus 1 dependent clause
beginning with a subordinating conjunction) Compound-complex sentence
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 Simple Sentences

A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause and can vary in length and style
with the addition of phrases.

predicate subject predicate (what is said about the subject)

phrase (noun phrase) (verb phrase) +object noun phrase) phrase phrase
optional optional optional optional

Students study.

University students need to write grammatically correct

sentences.
During higher degree students may need to improve a range of academic and for varied tasks in professional
postgraduate professional writing workplaces.
study, styles

Adapted from: Hinkel 2004, p. 66-69

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 Compound Sentences

A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses.

1. using coordinating conjunctions (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So)
Sentence structures are always dynamic, but variations among
them (sentence structures) follow predictable patterns.
Hinkel 2004, p.67

independent clause optional comma ( , ) coordinator independent clause

Optional to place a comma (,) after the first independent clause and before the coordinator
Do not join two ideas that are not related!

X Car production in Australia is in decline, and China is a large country. X

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Compound sentences

2. using conjunctive adverbs therefore

however
then
otherwise
also
besides
still furthermore nevertheless
moreover consequently accordingly

Sentence structures are always dynamic; however, variations

among them follow predictable patterns. Hinkel 2004, p. 67
semicolon (;) between the two connected independent clauses and a comma (,)
after the conjunctive adverb

3. using semicolons ;
Sentence structures are always dynamic; variations
among them follow predictable patterns.
Hinkel 2004, p. 67

the clauses need to be closely related when a semicolon is used

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 Compound sentences

Task 4: Form compound sentences by adding a second independent clause. Use

each coordinator/conjunctive adverb from the box below once and punctuate
correctly.

1. The company’s sales increased last year _________________

2. Cigarette smoking is a factor in longevity __________________________
3. Diet is one factor in how long people live ________________
4. Trains and buses offer viable forms of transportation in Asia
_________________________
5. Burning fossil fuels causes serious damage to our planet ____________________
6. Students must write grammatically correct assignments ______________
7. Vegans do not eat meat ____________________
8. Interest rates are high ______________________

moreover / and / but / however / otherwise / consequently / yet / nor

Adapted from: Oshima & Hogue 2006

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Possible answers

1. The company’s sales increased last year; however, its profit

declined.
2. Cigarette smoking is a factor in longevity, yet the Japanese and
other long-lived Asians have a very high rate of tobacco use.
3. Diet is one factor in how long people live, but it is not the only
factor.
4. Trains and buses offer reliable forms of transportation in Asia;
moreover, they are financially viable.
5. Burning fossil fuels causes serious damage to our planet;
consequently, other sources of energy need to be found.
6. Students must write academically correct assignments;
otherwise, they will receive deductions in their grades.
7. Vegans do not eat meat, nor do they eat dairy products.
8. Interest rates are high, and the stock market has fallen.
Complex sentences

A complex sentence is made up of one independent clause and at least one

dependent clause. The main idea is expressed in the independent clause.

People returned to their homes. The volcano erupted.

(two simple sentences)

While people returned to their homes, the volcano erupted.

(time relation)

People returned to their homes although the volcano had

erupted. (contrast relation)

See the difference in importance the writer has created?

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Complex sentences

1. using subordinating conjunctions

The idea in the independent clause is more important while the dependent
clause has a subordinate function.

While the dependent clause has a subordinate function, the idea in the
independent clause is more important.

comma after the dependent clause when it begins a sentence

After the subject-verb connection is made, you can then introduce longer and more
complicated material.
Bower 2011, p. 90

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 Complex sentences
Complex sentences contain an independent clause and one or more dependent
clause/s. These can be joined by a ‘subordinating conjunction’. A few of the
common subordinating conjunctions are:
As far as
After Unless As if
Although Until As long as
As When As soon as
Because Whenever As though
Before Where Assuming (that)
For Whereas Considering
How Wherever Given (that)
However Which Granted (that)
If While In case
Once Who In order for
Since Whoever In order that
That Whom Insofar as
Though Whose In the event that
Providing/provided (that)
Such that
Complex sentences

2. using a noun clause

‘A noun clause acts like a noun; it can be either the subject or an object of the independent clause’ (Oshima &
Hogue 2006, p. 172).

Researchers believe that the effects of global warming will begin soon.

dependent noun clause

Whether global warming is entirely caused by human impact divides the

scientific world.

Although I respected what the lecturer said, I disagreed with her

interpretation. (informal)

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Complex sentences
signals which introduce dependent noun clauses:
That
(that can be omitted, but it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence)
e.g. The researchers did not know (that) the experiment had already been done.
Who Whom Whose
Which
If Whether
What When Where How Why

And various forms of "-ever":

Whoever Whenever
Whatever Wherever
However Whichever
(Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted)

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Compound-complex sentences

A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses

and one or more dependent clauses.

Despite the fact that universities require grammatically correct

assignments, the majority of essays lack significant finesse, and
most students do not pursue the available support.
dependent clause + comma (,) + independent clause + optional comma (,) + coordinator + independent clause

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Frequency of sentence types in academic writing
more frequent

Complex
Simple
Compound
Compound-complex
less frequent

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Simple, compound or complex sentence?

The ‘argumentative essay’ is the most common genre

(Wu, 2006: 330), particularly in the arts, humanities
and social sciences (Hewings, 2010).
Wingate 2011, p. 1
Simple, compound or complex sentence?

The ‘argumentative essay’ is the most common genre

(Wu, 2006: 330),
independent clause

particularly in the arts, humanities and social sciences

(Hewings, 2010).
plus phrase (no verb)

= simple sentence
Simple, compound or complex sentence?
Try this…

Although the nature of the essay varies considerably

across and even within disciplines, the development of an
argument is regarded as a key feature of successful writing
by academics across disciplines (Lea & Street, 1998).
Wingate 2011, p. 1
Simple, compound or complex sentence?
the answer is…

Although the nature of the essay varies considerably

across and even within disciplines,

the development of an argument is regarded as a key

feature of successful writing by academics across
disciplines (Lea & Street, 1998).

dependent clause + independent clause

= Complex sentence
Simple/compound or complex sentence?
Try this….

The grammar is correct, and the end of each

sentence flows smoothly to the start of the next, but
the passage is incoherent.
Bower 2011, p. 90
Simple/compound or complex sentence?

The grammar is correct,

independent clause
and the end of each sentence flows smoothly to the
start of the next,
independent clause
but the passage is incoherent.
independent clause

3 independent clauses joined by coordinating

conjunctions= compound sentence
Bower 2011, p. 90
Compound-complex sentence
Some students claim that doing all the required
reading is too difficult but others disagree.

Two independent clauses + coordinating conjunction

+ one dependent clause
Sentence types
Task 2. Edit the following sentences
1. There are differences and similarities between the two theories
are easy to notice.
2. These chemical elements, they combine at a high temperature.
3. We are work very hard to reach our dream.
4. The new advances in technology in the 20th century are
remarkable, there is currently the World Wide Web to connect
people for communication, scientists have invented new AIDS
drugs.
5. Current developments in technology and broadcasting are at a
crossroad, comparable to the early development of television.
6. Psychologists, working from a biological perspective, point out,
that similar experiences can lead to different reactions.
7. Even though talent and training, and effort affect placement of the
individual in professional organisations.
8. Peer advisers help beginning students but they should not
assignments nor should they comment on the content.
Adapted from: Hinkel 2004, pp. 68-86
Possible answers
1. There are differences and similarities between the two theories, and they are
easy to notice. (compound sentence with coordinator)
2. These chemical elements, they combine at a high temperature. (repeated
subject)
3. We are working (We work) very hard to reach our dream.
4. The new advances in technology in the 20th century are remarkable. There is
currently the World Wide Web to connect people for communication, and
scientists have invented new AIDS drugs. (punctuation and compound sentence
to avoid run-on sentence).
5. Current developments in technology and broadcasting are at a crossroads×
comparable to the early development of television. (no comma before
subordinating clause)
6. Psychologists x working from a biological perspective x (defining relative clause)
point out x (noun clause following verb) that similar experiences can lead to
different reactions.
7. Even though talent, and training x (last item of a list) and effort affect placement
of the individual in professional organisations,… (sentence fragment = dependent
clause; requires an independent clause)
8. Peer advisers help beginning students, (compound sentence with coordinator)
but they should not do (missing verb in independent clause) assignments for
them, (compound sentence with coordinator) nor should they comment on the
content.
References
Brick, J 2011, Academic culture: a student’s guide to studying at university, 2nd edn, Macmillan, South Yarra.

Carter, R & McCarthy, M 2006, Cambridge grammar of English, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Christensen C A 2001, Transforming classrooms: Educational Psychology for Teaching and Learning, Post Pressed, Teneriffe QLD McKenzie 2009, New
Zealand Handbook for Writers and Editors, Woodslane Press, Australia.

Parkinson, J & Musgrave, J 2014, ‘Development of noun phrase complexity in the writing of English for academic purposes students’, Journal of English for
Academic Purposes, vol. 14, in progress, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2013.12.001

Quinn, C 2009, ‘Social networking: bridging formal and informal learning’, image, viewed 7 November 2014,
http://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/57/social-networking-bridging-formal-and-informal-learning

Swales, JM & Feak, CB 2004, Academic writing for graduate students: essential tasks and skills, 2nd edn, Michigan series in English for academic &
professional purposes, The university of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor

Wihbey, J 2013, ‘What’s new in digital scholarship’ image, viewed 7 November 2014, http://www.niemanlab.org/2013/08/whats-new-in-digital-scholarship-
reporters-ignoring-technology-the-continuing-power-of-print-and-booze-on-facebook

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