Report Writing

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Engineers and scientists write formal reports for many reasons, including
the documentation of experiments and designs.
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As an engineer or scientist working on the design of an airplane seat, you
might write several formal reports.
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1. One formal report might propose a new design for the seat.
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2. A second formal report might update the progress on the construction of
a test seat.
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a test seat.
3. Yet another formal report might document tests performed on the design.
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a test seat.
4. Still another formal report would assess whether the new design should
replace the existing design. In this last report, you would combine
elements from all the previous reports.
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a test seat.
4. Still another formal report would assess whether the new design should
replace the existing design. In this last report, you would combine
elements from all the previous reports.
Note that this last report might appear as a research article, which is a
special kind of formal report for a research audience.
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In a formal report, the audience expects a methodical presentation of the
subject that includes summaries of important points as well as appendices on
tangential and secondary points.
Note that the readers for a formal report are often two or more distinct
audiences. These distinct audiences include professionals specializing in the
report's subject matter, professionals not specializing in the report's subject
matter, and managers overseeing the report's subject matter.
Format distinguishes formal reports from an informal reporting of
information.
A well-crafted formal report is formatted such that the report's information is
readily accessible to all the audiences. For that reason, formal reports are split
into different sections. One way to group these sections is:
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1.Front matter
The front matter, which presents preliminary information for the

report, serves to orient all intended audiences to what the report
contains.
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1.Front matter

contains.
2.Main text
The text portion of the formal report is the report's "story" and
contains the introduction, discussion, and conclusion of the report. The
text delivers a methodical explanation of the report's work to the
report's primary audience.
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1.Front matter

contains.
2.Main text
The text portion of the formal report is the report's "story" and
contains the introduction, discussion, and conclusion of the report. The
text delivers a methodical explanation of the report's work to the
report's primary audience.
3.Back matter
The report's back matter portion, which contains the appendices,

glossary, and references, serves to provide secondary information to
all readers as well as primary information to secondary readers
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Front matter
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Front matter
1.Front cover
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Front matter
1.Front cover
2.Title page
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Front matter
1.Front cover
2.Title page
3.Contents page
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Front matter
1.Front cover
2.Title page
3.Contents page
4.Summary
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Front matter
1.Front cover
2.Title page
3.Contents page
4.Summary
Other sections that sometimes appear in the front matter
are:
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Front matter
1.Front cover
2.Title page
3.Contents page
4.Summary
are:
1.Preface
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Front matter
1.Front cover
2.Title page
3.Contents page
4.Summary

are:
1.Preface
2.Acknowledgements
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Front matter
1.Front cover
2.Title page
3.Contents page
4.Summary

are:
1.Preface
2.Acknowledgements
3.List of illustrations
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Front matter
1.Front cover
2.Title page
3.Contents page
4.Summary

are:
1.Preface
2.Acknowledgements
3.List of illustrations
4.List of abbreviations.
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Front cover
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Front cover
1. The front cover is what people see first.

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Front cover
2. When the report sits flat on a desk, the front cover is in view.
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Front cover
3. The front cover should contain the report's title and the author's
name.
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Front cover
name.
4. Because reports are often revised and republished, the front

cover should also contain the date of publication.
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Front cover
name.

5. The front cover has no page number.

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Front cover
name.

6. Space the title, name, and date to achieve a nice balance on the
page.
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Front cover
name.

page.
7. Type the title in a larger font size than the name and date.
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Front cover
name.

page.
7. Type the title in a larger font size than the name and date.
8. Use initial capitals for the title.

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Title page
• The title page for a formal report often contains the same
information as is on the cover.
• In some formats, there is a summary included. Most often,

because of space restrictions, that summary is descriptive (more
like a table of contents in paragraph form).
• Sometimes, though, this initial summary is informative and geared

toward the technical audience of the report. In such situations,
that summary is often named an "Abstract."
• Note that the title page is numbered "i" (the actual presence of a
page number on the first page is optional).
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Contents page
The table of contents includes the names of all the
headings and subheadings for the main text.
In addition, the table of contents includes names of all
headings (but not subheadings) in the front matter and
back matter.
For instance, the contents page includes listings for the
appendices (including appendix titles), the glossary, and
the references.
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Summary
In general there are two types of summaries:
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Summary
Descriptive summaries and informative summaries.
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Summary
A descriptive summary describes what kind of information
is in the report; it is a table of contents in paragraph form.
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Summary
An informative summary is a synopsis of the text portion of
the report.
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Summary
the report.
Unfortunately, few people use these terms to name the
summaries in reports.
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Summary
the report.
Unfortunately, few people use these terms to name the
summaries in reports.
The names you're likely to run into are "abstract,"
"executive summary," and plain old "summary."
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Abstract
usually, but not always, refers to a summary written to a

technical audience, and depending on its length can be
either descriptive, informative, or a combination of both.
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Abstract

As you might imagine, short abstracts are typically

descriptive and longer abstracts are typically informative.
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Abstract


Abstracts generally do not include illustrations.

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Abstract


Sometimes the word "abstract" is preceded by the word

"descriptive," which is usually a clue that you should write a
descriptive summary written to a technical audience.
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Abstract
usually, but not always, refers to a summary written to a technical

audience, and depending on its length can be either descriptive,
informative, or a combination of both.
As you might imagine, short abstracts are typically descriptive and

longer abstracts are typically informative.
Sometimes the word "abstract" is preceded by the word "descriptive,"

which is usually a clue that you should write a descriptive summary
written to a technical audience.
Other times the word "abstract" is preceded by the word "technical,"

which is usually a clue that an informative summary written to a
technical audience is called for.
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Executive summary
is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an

informative summary written to a management audience.
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Executive summary

Because it is informative, it includes the most important

results and conclusions of the document.
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Executive summary


Because it is written to a management audience, it includes

enough background for the manager to understand those
results and conclusions.
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Executive summary


Because it is written to a management audience, it includes

enough background for the manager to understand those
results and conclusions.
Stylistically, it is tailored so that a manager can read it

quickly and garner what happened in the report.
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Executive summary
is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an informative

summary written to a management audience.
Because it is informative, it includes the most important results and

conclusions of the document.
Because it is written to a management audience, it includes enough

background for the manager to understand those results and
conclusions.
Stylistically, it is tailored so that a manager can read it quickly and

garner what happened in the report.
Whether it contains illustrations or not depends on the format

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Main text
The text portion of your formal report contains the introduction,

discussion, and conclusion of your report.
Begin all major headings ("Introduction," for example) on a new page.

Use Arabic numerals for numbering pages of the text and begin the
first page of your text as page 1
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Introduction
The introduction of a report prepares readers for understanding the

discussion of the report.
Like the title and summary, the introduction is written for the widest
audience possible.
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Discussion
The discussion or middle is the story of your work.

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Discussion
You do not necessarily present results in the order that you

understood them, but in the order that is easiest for your
readers to understand them.
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Discussion
You do not necessarily present results in the order that you

understood them, but in the order that is easiest for your
readers to understand them.
In your discussion, you not only present results, but you

also evaluate those results.
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Discussion
You do not necessarily present results in the order that you understood
them, but in the order that is easiest for your readers to understand
them.
In your discussion, you not only present results, but you also evaluate
those results.
Note that you do not generally use the word "Discussion" as the title for
the major headings in this part of the report. Rather, you choose titles
that reflect the content of the sections.
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Conclusion
The conclusion section analyzes for the most important results from the
discussion and evaluates those results in the context of the entire work.
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Conclusion
In your conclusion, you often make recommendations based on those

evaluations.
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Conclusion

evaluations.
The conclusion is much like an informative summary except for one

thing-in the conclusion, you are writing to an audience who has read
your report.
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Conclusion

evaluations.
The conclusion is much like an informative summary except for one

thing-in the conclusion, you are writing to an audience who has read
your report.
Note that you do not necessarily have to use the word "Conclusion" as
the title for this section. Depending on the situation, you might for
example choose "Conclusions and Recommendations." In still other
situations, your conclusion might span two sections.
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Back matter
The back matter portion of your report contains your

appendices, glossary, and references.
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Back matter

The back matter portion usually begins on the page

following the conclusion.
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Back matter

The back matter portion usually begins on the page

following the conclusion.
Continue numbering back matter pages with Arabic

numerals. In other words, if the conclusion section ends on
page 16, the first appendix will begin on page 17
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Appendices
Use appendices to present supplemental information for
secondary readers. When the occasion arises in the text,
refer readers to information in the appendix. For example:
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Appendices
This section compares three software pages to run tests on
blood analyzer. The analyzer has a complex design, which
is discussed in Appendix B.
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Appendices
Treat each appendix as a major heading.
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Appendices
If you have only appendix, call it the "Appendix." If you
have more than one appendix, number the appendices with
letters: Appendix A, Appendix B, and so on.
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Appendices
Use appendices to present supplemental information for secondary
readers. When the occasion arises in the text, refer readers to
information in the appendix. For example:
This section compares three software pages to run tests on blood
analyzer. The analyzer has a complex design, which is discussed in
Appendix B.
If you have only appendix, call it the "Appendix." If you have more than
one appendix, number the appendices with letters: Appendix A,
Appendix B, and so on.
Illustrations in appendices are numbered as follows. In both a single
appendix and in an Appendix A, figures and tables are numbered A-1,
A-2, and so on. Equations in Appendix A are numbered in the same
way. In an Appendix B, illustrations and equations follow a B sequence.
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Glossary
Use a glossary to define terms for secondary readers.
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Glossary
Arrange terms in alphabetical order.
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Glossary
Use italics or underlines to key readers to terms that the
glossary will define.
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Glossary
Footnote the first italicized or underlined term in the text
and key readers to the location of glossary, where that term
and all future underlined or italicized terms will be defined.
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Glossary
Footnote the first italicized or underlined term in the text
and key readers to the location of glossary, where that term
and all future underlined or italicized terms will be defined.
Use a reverse indent for each definition and treat each
definition as a separate paragraph.
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References
Use a reference page to list alphabetically the references of
your report.
LABORATORY REPORT
Laboratory reports are written for several

reasons.
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Laboratory reports are written for several reasons.
One reason is to communicate the laboratory work to
management. In such situations, management often bases
company decisions on the results of the report.
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Another reason to write laboratory reports is to archive the
work so that the work will not have to be done in the future.
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Commonly used organization for laboratory reports:
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1.Abstract,
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1.Abstract,
2.Introduction,
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1.Abstract,
2.Introduction,
3.Procedures,
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1.Abstract,
2.Introduction,
3.Procedures,
4.Results and Discussion,

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One reason is to communicate the laboratory work to management. In
such situations, management often bases company decisions on the
results of the report.
Another reason to write laboratory reports is to archive the work so that
the work will not have to be done in the future.
1.Abstract,
2.Introduction,
3.Procedures,
5.Conclusions, and
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One reason is to communicate the laboratory work to management. In
such situations, management often bases company decisions on the
results of the report.
Another reason to write laboratory reports is to archive the work so that
the work will not have to be done in the future.
1.Abstract,
2.Introduction,
3.Procedures,
5.Conclusions, and
6.Appendices.
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Abstract
1. The abstract presents a synopsis of the experiment.
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Abstract
2. The abstract should be written concisely in normal rather than
highly abbreviated English.
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Abstract
3. The author should assume that the reader has some knowledge
of the subject but has not read the paper. Thus, the abstract
should be intelligible and complete in itself; particularly it should
not cite figures, tables, or sections of the paper.
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Abstract
4. The opening sentence or two should, in general, indicate the
subjects dealt with in the paper and should state the objectives of
the investigation. It is also desirable to describe the treatment by
one or more such terms as brief, exhaustive, theoretical,
experimental, and so forth.
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Abstract
5. The body of the abstract should indicate newly observed facts
and the conclusions of the experiment or argument discussed in
the paper.
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Abstract
5. The body of the abstract should indicate newly observed facts
and the conclusions of the experiment or argument discussed in
the paper.
6. It should contain new numerical data presented in the paper if
space permits; otherwise, attention should be drawn to the nature
of such data.
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Abstract
7. In the case of experimental results, the abstract should indicate
the methods used in obtaining them; for new methods the basic
principle, range of operation, and degree of accuracy should be
given.
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Abstract
7. In the case of experimental results, the abstract should indicate
the methods used in obtaining them; for new methods the basic
principle, range of operation, and degree of accuracy should be
given.
8. The abstract should be typed as one paragraph. should not
exceed 200 words.
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Introduction
1. The "Introduction" of a laboratory report identifies:
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Introduction
2. the experiment to be undertaken
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Introduction
3. The objectives of the experiment
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Introduction
4. The importance of the experiment
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Introduction
5. Overall background for understanding the experiment
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Introduction
6. The objectives of the experiment are important to state
because these objectives are usually analyzed in the
conclusion to determine whether the experiment
succeeded.
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Introduction
6. The objectives of the experiment are important to state because
these objectives are usually analyzed in the conclusion to
determine whether the experiment succeeded.
7. The background often includes theoretical predictions for what the
results should be
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Procedures
1. The "Procedures," often called the "Methods,"
discusses how the experiment occurred.
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Procedures
2. Historically, laboratory procedures have been written
as first-person narratives as opposed to second-
person sets of instructions.
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Procedures
2. Historically, laboratory procedures have been written
as first-person narratives as opposed to second-
person sets of instructions.
3. In general, you should give the audience enough
information that they could replicate your results. For
that reason, you should include those details that
affect the outcome.
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Procedures
1. The "Procedures," often called the "Methods," discusses how the
experiment occurred.
2. Historically, laboratory procedures have been written as first-
person narratives as opposed to second-person sets of
instructions.
3. In general, you should give the audience enough information that
they could replicate your results. For that reason, you should
include those details that affect the outcome.
4. Consider as an example the procedure for using a manometer
and strain indicator to find the static calibration of a pressure
transducer. Because calibrations are considered standard, you
can assume that your audience will have access to many details
such as possible arrangements of the valves and tubes. What you
would want to include, then, would be those details that might
cause your results to differ from those of your audience. Such
details would include the model number of the pressure
transducer and the pressure range for which you calibrated the
transducer. Should you have any anomalies, such as unusual
ambient temperature, during your measurements, you would want
to include those.
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Results and Discussion
1. The heart of a laboratory report is the presentation of
the results and the discussion of those results.
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2. In some formats, "Results" and "Discussion" appear as
separate sections.
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2. In some formats, "Results" and "Discussion" appear as
separate sections.
3. Use your judgment. For instance, combine these
sections when the discussion of your first result is
needed to understand your second result, but separate
these sections when it is useful to discuss the results
as a whole after all results are reported.
LABORATORY REPORT
1. The heart of a laboratory report is the presentation of the results
and the discussion of those results.
2. In some formats, "Results" and "Discussion" appear as separate
sections.
3. Use your judgment. For instance, combine these sections when
the discussion of your first result is needed to understand your
second result, but separate these sections when it is useful to
discuss the results as a whole after all results are reported.
4. In discussing the results, you should not only analyze the results,
but also discuss the implications of those results.
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sections.
5. Moreover, pay attention to the errors that existed in the
experiment, both where they originated and what their
significance is for interpreting the reliability of conclusions.
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sections.
5. Moreover, pay attention to the errors that existed in the
experiment, both where they originated and what their
significance is for interpreting the reliability of conclusions.
6. One important way to present numerical results is to show them
in graphs.
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Conclusions
1. In longer laboratory reports, a "Conclusion" section

often appears.
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Conclusions

often appears.
2. Whereas the "Results and Discussion" section has

discussed the results individually, the "Conclusion"
section discusses the results in the context of the
entire experiment.
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Conclusions

often appears.

entire experiment.
3. Usually, the objectives mentioned in the "Introduction"

are examined to determined whether the experiment
succeeded.
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Conclusions

often appears.

entire experiment.
3. Usually, the objectives mentioned in the "Introduction"

are examined to determined whether the experiment
succeeded.
4. If the objectives were not met, you should analyze

why the results were not as predicted.
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Conclusions
1. In longer laboratory reports, a "Conclusion" section often appears.
2. Whereas the "Results and Discussion" section has discussed the

results individually, the "Conclusion" section discusses the results
in the context of the entire experiment.
3. Usually, the objectives mentioned in the "Introduction" are

examined to determined whether the experiment succeeded.
4. If the objectives were not met, you should analyze why the
results were not as predicted.
5. Note that in shorter reports or in reports where "Discussion" is a

separate section from "Results," you often do not have a
"Conclusion" section
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Appendices
One type of appendix that appears in laboratory reports

presents information that is too detailed to be placed into
the report's text.
For example, if you had a long table giving voltage-current

measurements for an RLC circuit, you might place this
tabular information in an appendix and include a graph of
the data in the report's text.
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Appendices
Another type of appendix that often appears in laboratory reports

presents tangential information that does not directly concern the
experiment's objectives.
If the appendix is "formal," it should contain a beginning, middle, and

ending.
For example, if the appendix contains tables of test data, the appendix
should not only contain the tabular data, but also formally introduce
those tables, discuss why they have been included, and explain the
unusual aspects that might confuse the reader.
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND REPORTS
It provides information on a technical topic but in such a
way that is adapted for a particular audience that has
specific needs for that information.
Imagine a topic like this: kidney diseases and therapy. A
technical background report on this topic would not dump
out a ten-ton textbook containing everything you could
possibly say about it.
Imagine a topic like this: kidney diseases and therapy. A
technical background report on this topic would not dump
out a ten-ton textbook containing everything you could
possibly say about it.
It would select information about the topic suited to a
specific group of readers who had specific needs and uses
for the information.
It provides information on a technical topic but in such a way that is
adapted for a particular audience that has specific needs for that
information.
Imagine a topic like this: kidney diseases and therapy. A technical
background report on this topic would not dump out a ten-ton textbook
containing everything you could possibly say about it.
It would select information about the topic suited to a specific group of
readers who had specific needs and uses for the information.
Imagine the audience was a group of engineers bidding on a contract
to do part of the work for a dialysis clinic. Yes, they need to know about
kidney disease and its therapy, but only to the extent that it has to do
with their areas of expertise.
It provides information on a technical topic but in such a way that is
adapted for a particular audience that has specific needs for that
information.
Imagine a topic like this: kidney diseases and therapy. A technical
background report on this topic would not dump out a ten-ton textbook
containing everything you could possibly say about it.
It would select information about the topic suited to a specific group of
readers who had specific needs and uses for the information.
Imagine the audience was a group of engineers bidding on a contract
to do part of the work for a dialysis clinic. Yes, they need to know about
kidney disease and its therapy, but only to the extent that it has to do
with their areas of expertise.
Such a background report might also include some basic discussion of
kidney disease and its treatment, but no more than what the engineers
need to do their work and to interact with representatives of the clinic.
Typical contents and organization of technical
background reports
The technical background report does not have a common
set of contents. Because it focuses on a specific technical
topic for specific audiences who have specific needs or
uses for the information, it grabs at whatever type of
contents it needs to get the job done.
Typical contents and organization of technical background
reports
The technical background report does not have a common set of
contents. Because it focuses on a specific technical topic for specific
audiences who have specific needs or uses for the information, it grabs
at whatever type of contents it needs to get the job done.
You use a lot of intuition to plan this type of report. For example, with
the report on kidney disease and treatment, you'd probably want to
discuss what kidney disease is, what causes it, how it is treated, and
what kinds of technologies are involved in the treatment. If you don't
fully trust your intuition, use a checklist like the following:
1. Definitions—Define the potentially unfamiliar terms
associated with the topic. Write extended definitions if
the terms are key terms or if they are particularly difficult
to explain.
to explain.
2. Causes—Explain what causes are related to the topic.
For example, with the kidney disease topic, what
causes the disease?
to explain.
2. Causes—Explain what causes are related to the topic.
For example, with the kidney disease topic, what
causes the disease?
3. Effects—Explain what are the consequences, results, or
effects associated with the topic. With the kidney
disease topic, what happens to people with the disease;
what effects do the various treatments have?
1. Definitions—Define the potentially unfamiliar terms associated with
the topic. Write extended definitions if the terms are key terms or if
they are particularly difficult to explain.
2. Causes—Explain what causes are related to the topic. For
example, with the kidney disease topic, what causes the disease?
3. Effects—Explain what are the consequences, results, or effects
associated with the topic. With the kidney disease topic, what
happens to people with the disease; what effects do the various
treatments have?
4. Types—Discuss the different types or categories associated with
the topic. For example, are there different types of kidney disease;
are there different categories of treatment?
1. Definitions—Define the potentially unfamiliar terms associated with
the topic. Write extended definitions if the terms are key terms or if
they are particularly difficult to explain.
2. Causes—Explain what causes are related to the topic. For
example, with the kidney disease topic, what causes the disease?
3. Effects—Explain what are the consequences, results, or effects
associated with the topic. With the kidney disease topic, what
happens to people with the disease; what effects do the various
treatments have?
4. Types—Discuss the different types or categories associated with
the topic. For example, are there different types of kidney disease;
are there different categories of treatment?
5. Historical background—Discuss relevant history related to the
topic. Discuss people, events, and past theories related to the
topic.
6. Processes—Discuss mechanical, natural, human-
controlled processes related to the topic. Explain step by
step how the process occurs. For example, what are the
phases of the kidney disease cycle; what typically
happens to a person with a specific form of the disease?
6. Processes—Discuss mechanical, natural, human-
controlled processes related to the topic. Explain step by
step how the process occurs. For example, what are the
phases of the kidney disease cycle; what typically
happens to a person with a specific form of the disease?
7. Descriptions—Provide information on the physical
details of things related to the topic. Provide information
about size, shape, color, weight, and so on.
6. Processes—Discuss mechanical, natural, human-controlled
processes related to the topic. Explain step by step how the
process occurs. For example, what are the phases of the kidney
disease cycle; what typically happens to a person with a specific
form of the disease?
7. Descriptions—Provide information on the physical details of things
related to the topic. Provide information about size, shape, color,
weight, and so on.
8. Comparisons—Compare the topic, or some aspect of it, to
something similar or something familiar. With the kidney disease
example, you could compare kidney disease to some other disease;
the treatment to some treatment; the functions of the kidney to
something familiar (an analogy); or even the treatment to something
familiar, for example, the filter system for a swimming pool.
9. Applications—Explore how some aspect of your topic can be used
or applied. If it's some new technology, what are its applications?
10. Advantages and disadvantages—Discuss the advantages or
disadvantages of one or more aspects of your topic. In the kidney
disease topic, for example, what are the advantages of one
treatment over another?
10. Advantages and disadvantages—Discuss the advantages or
disadvantages of one or more aspects of your topic. In the kidney
disease topic, for example, what are the advantages of one
treatment over another?
11. Economic considerations—Discuss the costs of one or more
aspects associated with your topic. How much does treatment for
kidney disease cost? How much does the equipment and
personnel cost?
12. Social, political, legal, ethical implications—Explore the
implications or impact of your topic or some aspect of it
in relation to social, political, legal, or ethical concerns.
The kidney disease example doesn't lend itself much to
this area, but imagine the possibilities with a topic like
Often, new technologies have profound impact in these
areas.
implications or impact of your topic or some aspect of it
in relation to social, political, legal, or ethical concerns.
The kidney disease example doesn't lend itself much to
this area, but imagine the possibilities with a topic like
Often, new technologies have profound impact in these
areas.
13. Problems, questions—What problems or questions are
there associated with your report topic or some aspect
of it?
implications or impact of your topic or some aspect of it in relation
to social, political, legal, or ethical concerns. The kidney disease
example doesn't lend itself much to this area, but imagine the
possibilities with a topic like Often, new technologies have
profound impact in these areas.
13. Problems, questions—What problems or questions are there
associated with your report topic or some aspect of it?
14. Solutions, answers—What solutions or answers can you offer on
those problems or questions raised by your topic or some aspect
of it?
PRIMARY RESEARCH REPORTS
Primary research report is our name for that kind of report that presents
original research data—no matter whether that data was generated in a
laboratory or out in the "field."
A secondary research report then would be a report that presents
information gained largely from printed information sources or from
other sources such as people.
Contents of primary research reports
1. Introduction—The introduction to the primary research report needs
to do what any good introduction to a report needs to do—get the
readers ready to read the report. It may provide some background,
but not more than a paragraph or two in a one- to two-page
introduction. Some of the common elements of the introduction to a
primary research report, such as the background or the purpose,
can be handled in the introduction. If they require a lot of
discussion, however, they may need their own sections.
1. Introduction—The introduction to the primary research report needs
to do what any good introduction to a report needs to do—get the
readers ready to read the report. It may provide some background,
but not more than a paragraph or two in a one- to two-page
introduction. Some of the common elements of the introduction to a
primary research report, such as the background or the purpose,
can be handled in the introduction. If they require a lot of
discussion, however, they may need their own sections.
2. Problem, background—One of the first things to do, either in the
introduction, or in a separate section of its own, is to discuss the
situation that has led to the research work. For example, you may
find that there is something questionable about a commonly
accepted theory; you may have noticed some phenomenon that
could be used to advantage, and so on. Explain this somewhere
toward the beginning of a primary research report.
3. Purpose, objectives, scope—Also toward the beginning of this type
of report discuss what you intended to do in the research project—
what were your objectives? Also, explain the scope of your work—
what were you not trying to do?
3. Purpose, objectives, scope—Also toward the beginning of this type
of report discuss what you intended to do in the research project—
what were your objectives? Also, explain the scope of your work—
what were you not trying to do?
4. Review of literature—After you've established the basis for the
project, summarize the literature relevant to it—for example, books,
journal articles, and encyclopedias. If you are doing a study on
grammar-checking software, what books or articles have already
been written on that subject? What do they have to say about the
merits of this kind of software? All you do is summarize this
literature briefly and enable readers to go have a look at it by
providing the full bibliographic citation at the end of your report.
5. Materials, equipment, facilities—Remember that one of
your goals in writing this type of report is to enable the
reader to replicate the experiment or survey you
performed. Key to this is the discussion of the equipment
and facilities you used in your research. Describe things
in detail, providing brand names, model numbers, sizes,
and other such specifications.
5. Materials, equipment, facilities—Remember that one of your goals
in writing this type of report is to enable the reader to replicate the
experiment or survey you performed. Key to this is the discussion of
the equipment and facilities you used in your research. Describe
things in detail, providing brand names, model numbers, sizes, and
other such specifications.
6. Theory, methods, procedures—To enable readers to replicate your
project, you must also explain the procedures or methods you used.
This discussion can be step by step: "first, I did this, then I did
that...." Theory and method refer more to the intellectual or
conceptual framework of your project. These explain why you used
the procedures that you used.
7. Results, findings, data—Critical to any primary research report is
the data that you collect. You present it in various tables, charts,
and graphs into your reports). These can go in the body of your
report, or in appendixes if they are so big that they interrupt the flow
of your discussion. Of course, some results or findings may not be
presentable as tables, charts, or graphs. In these cases, you just
discuss it in paragraphs. In any case, you do not add interpretation
to this presentation of data. You merely present the data, without
trying to explain it.
7. Results, findings, data—Critical to any primary research report is
the data that you collect. You present it in various tables, charts,
and graphs into your reports). These can go in the body of your
report, or in appendixes if they are so big that they interrupt the flow
of your discussion. Of course, some results or findings may not be
presentable as tables, charts, or graphs. In these cases, you just
discuss it in paragraphs. In any case, you do not add interpretation
to this presentation of data. You merely present the data, without
trying to explain it.
8. Discussion, conclusions, recommendations—In primary research
reports, you interpret or discuss your findings in a section separate
from the one where you present the data. Now's the time to explain
your data, to interpret it. This section, or area of the report, is also
the place to make recommendations or state ideas for further
research.
9. Bibliography—The ideal of the primary research report is build upon
or add to the knowledge in a particular area. It's the vehicle by
which our knowledge advances for a specific topic. Your primary
research report rests on top of all the work done by other
researchers on the same topic. For that reason, you must list the
sources of information you used or consulted in your project. This
list occurs at the end of the report
BUSINESS PLANS
A business plan is very much like a proposal, except for at
least one big difference.
BUSINESS PLANS
The prospectus seeks to start a new business or
significantly expand an existing business.
BUSINESS PLANS
A proposal, on the other hand, seeks approval to do a
specific project.
BUSINESS PLANS
specific project.
For example, a business plan might seek funding and other
support to start a software company to create computer
games.
BUSINESS PLANS
specific project.
For example, a business plan might seek funding and other
support to start a software company to create computer
games.
A proposal, on the other hand, might bid to do the
development work for some specific computer game.
BUSINESS PLANS
Common sections in business plans
1. Product or service to be offered—One of the most
important sections of the business plan is the
description of the actual product or service to be
offered by your company. If it is a description of a
product—a physical object. If you are going to offer a
service, explain it, and take readers on a step-by-step
tour of how the service will be handled.
BUSINESS PLANS
1. Product or service to be offered—One of the most important
sections of the business plan is the description of the actual
product or service to be offered by your company. If it is a
description of a product—a physical object. If you are going to
offer a service, explain it, and take readers on a step-by-step tour
of how the service will be handled.
2. Technical background on the product or service—If your product
or service involves technologies or technical processes potentially
unfamiliar to your readers, explain these. Remember that
business plans often go to non-specialists who, despite their lack
of technical expertise, have the investment funds or the legal
understanding to get your business going.
BUSINESS PLANS
3. Market for the product or service—Critical also to any
business plan is the exploration of the existing
marketplace into which your product or service fits.
What other companies exist that offer the same thing
you plan to offer? How much business do they do?
How are they different from each other? How will your
business differ from them?
BUSINESS PLANS
3. Market for the product or service—Critical also to any
business plan is the exploration of the existing
marketplace into which your product or service fits.
What other companies exist that offer the same thing
you plan to offer? How much business do they do?
How are they different from each other? How will your
business differ from them?
4. Process by which the product or service is produced—
If applicable, explain how the product or service will be
produced. Explain how the proposed business will
operate on a day-to-day basis.
BUSINESS PLANS
3. Market for the product or service—Critical also to any business
plan is the exploration of the existing marketplace into which your
product or service fits. What other companies exist that offer the
same thing you plan to offer? How much business do they do?
How are they different from each other? How will your business
differ from them?
4. Process by which the product or service is produced—If
applicable, explain how the product or service will be produced.
Explain how the proposed business will operate on a day-to-day
basis.
5. Facilities and personnel needed for the operation—Plan to
discuss the facilities (storefronts, warehouses, production
facilities, vehicles) your business will require as well as the
personnel that will be needed.
BUSINESS PLANS
6. Projected revenues from the operation—Of obvious
importance in any business plan is the discussion of
the revenues you project for your business. If you know
the estimate of total revenues for the market area in
which you plan to operate, what percentage do you
explain to win? Obviously, in your first few years, you
may operate at a loss—at what point in time do you
project to break even?
BUSINESS PLANS
6. Projected revenues from the operation—Of obvious importance in
any business plan is the discussion of the revenues you project
for your business. If you know the estimate of total revenues for
the market area in which you plan to operate, what percentage do
you explain to win? Obviously, in your first few years, you may
operate at a loss—at what point in time do you project to break
even?
7. Funding necessary for startup and operation—The plan should
also discuss the funding you'll need to get the business started as
well as the operating costs—the funding needed to run the
business on a daily basis.
BUSINESS PLANS
6. Projected revenues from the operation—Of obvious importance in
any business plan is the discussion of the revenues you project
for your business. If you know the estimate of total revenues for
the market area in which you plan to operate, what percentage do
you explain to win? Obviously, in your first few years, you may
operate at a loss—at what point in time do you project to break
even?
7. Funding necessary for startup and operation—The plan should
also discuss the funding you'll need to get the business started as
well as the operating costs—the funding needed to run the
business on a daily basis.
8. Legal issues related to the proposed business—Your business
plan may also need to discuss your business, its products, or its
services in relation to government regulations—for example,
environmental restrictions.
BUSINESS PLANS
9. Qualifications and background of the personnel—
Important too is the section that presents your
qualifications to start and operate the business you are
proposing. This section can be very much like a collection
of resumes, although you want to write an introduction in
which you describe your group's qualifications as a
whole.
BUSINESS PLANS
9. Qualifications and background of the personnel—Important too is the
section that presents your qualifications to start and operate the
business you are proposing. This section can be very much like a
collection of resumes, although you want to write an introduction in
which you describe your group's qualifications as a whole.
10. Discussion of feasibility and investment potential—You'll want to
include in your plan a discussion of the likelihood of the success of
your business. Obviously, you believe that it will be a success, but
you must find a way to support this belief with facts and conclusions
in order to convince your readers. Also, you must discuss what sort
of return on investment readers can expect.
BUSINESS PLANS
9. Qualifications and background of the personnel—Important too is the
section that presents your qualifications to start and operate the
business you are proposing. This section can be very much like a
collection of resumes, although you want to write an introduction in
which you describe your group's qualifications as a whole.
10. Discussion of feasibility and investment potential—You'll want to
include in your plan a discussion of the likelihood of the success of
your business. Obviously, you believe that it will be a success, but
you must find a way to support this belief with facts and conclusions
in order to convince your readers. Also, you must discuss what sort
of return on investment readers can expect.
11. Investment offering—And finally, you may need to present what
kinds of investment apparatus you are actually offering.
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications are descriptions of products or product
requirements. More broadly, they can provide details for
the design, manufacture, testing, installation, and use of a
product.
Specifications are descriptions of products or product
requirements. More broadly, they can provide details for
the design, manufacture, testing, installation, and use of a
product.
You typically see specifications in the documentation that
comes in the package with certain kinds of products, for
example, CD players or computers. These describe the key
technical characteristics of the item.
Specifications are descriptions of products or product requirements.
More broadly, they can provide details for the design, manufacture,
testing, installation, and use of a product.
You typically see specifications in the documentation that comes in the
package with certain kinds of products, for example, CD players or
computers. These describe the key technical characteristics of the
item.
But specifications are also written as a way of "specifying" the
construction and operational characteristics of a thing. They are then
used by people who actually construct the thing or go out and attempt
to purchase it.
Specifications are descriptions of products or product requirements.
More broadly, they can provide details for the design, manufacture,
testing, installation, and use of a product.
You typically see specifications in the documentation that comes in the
package with certain kinds of products, for example, CD players or
computers. These describe the key technical characteristics of the
item.
But specifications are also written as a way of "specifying" the
construction and operational characteristics of a thing. They are then
used by people who actually construct the thing or go out and attempt
to purchase it.
When you write specifications, accuracy, precision of detail, and clarity
are critical. Poorly written specifications can cause a range of problems
and lead to lawsuits.
Contents and Organization of Specifications
Organization is critical in specifications—readers need to be able to
find one or a collection of specific details. To facilitate the process of
locating individual specifications, use headings, lists, tables, and
identifying numbers as discussed previously. But a certain organization
of the actual contents is also standard.
1 General description—Describe the product, component, or
program first in general terms—administrative details about its
cost, start and completion dates, overall description of the project,
scope of the specifications (what you are not covering), anything
that is of a general nature and does not fit in the part-by-part
descriptions in the following.
2 Part-by-part description—In the main body, present specifications
part by part, element by element, trade by trade—whatever is the
logical, natural, or conventional way of doing it.
3 General-to-specific order—Wherever applicable, arrange
specifications from general to specific.
Graphics in specifications.
In specifications, use graphics wherever they enable you to convey
information more effectively. For example, in the specifications for a
clean-room for production of integrated circuits, drawings, diagrams,
and schematics convey some of the information much more succinctly
and effectively than sentences and paragraphs.
CHECKLIST FOR THE TECHNICAL REPORT
1. Do you include all the required components in the required order,
for example, transmittal letter, followed by title page, followed by
figure list, and so on
2. Do you address your report to a real or realistic audience that has
a genuine need for your report
3. Do you identify in the introduction what background the audience
needs to read and understand your report?
4. Does your report contain specific, factual detail focused on the
purpose of the report and the needs of the audience and aimed at
their level of understanding?
5. Does your report accomplish its purpose? Is that purpose clearly
stated in the introduction?
6. Does your report use information sources and do you properly
document them?
7. Does your report use the format for headings that is standard for this
course? (See the chapter on headings for details.)
8. Does your report use the format for lists that is standard for this course
9. Does your report use graphics and tables? Does your report use the
format for graphics and tables that is standard for this course?
Specifically, are your figure titles (captions) to our class specifications
10. Is page 1 of your introduction designed according to the standard for
this course?
11. Does every new section (which starts with a first-level heading) start on
a new page? Have you check for widowed headings (headings that
start at the very bottom of a page)? stacked headings (two or more
consecutive headings without intervening text)? lone headings (a single
heading within a section)? parallelism in the phrasing of headings?
12. Does the title page of your report include a descriptive abstract, and
is it written according to the specifications in the chapter on
abstracts?
13. Do you include an informative abstract in your report; is it
positioned properly in relation to the other report components; and
is it written according to the specifications? Specifically, does your
informative abstract summarize the key facts and conclusions of
your report rather than act as just another introduction or
descriptive abstract?
14. Does the introduction of your report include the elements necessary
in good introductions, such as audience, overview, purpose?
15. Do you avoid the problem of having too much background in the
introduction, or having an introduction that is all background?
Assignment
Tech. Writing and Comm. Skills
Select a product, a topic, an event, a process

etc. of your choice and write a Technical
Report. The length should not be more then
seven pages including front and back matter.

Report Writing

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REPORT WRITING

The front matter, which presents preliminary information for the

The front matter, which presents preliminary information for the

The front matter, which presents preliminary information for the

The report's back matter portion, which contains the appendices,

Other sections that sometimes appear in the front matter

Other sections that sometimes appear in the front matter

Other sections that sometimes appear in the front matter

1. The front cover is what people see first.

1. The front cover is what people see first.

1. The front cover is what people see first.

1. The front cover is what people see first.

4. Because reports are often revised and republished, the front

1. The front cover is what people see first.

4. Because reports are often revised and republished, the front

5. The front cover has no page number.

1. The front cover is what people see first.

4. Because reports are often revised and republished, the front

5. The front cover has no page number.

1. The front cover is what people see first.

4. Because reports are often revised and republished, the front

5. The front cover has no page number.

1. The front cover is what people see first.

4. Because reports are often revised and republished, the front

5. The front cover has no page number.

8. Use initial capitals for the title.

• In some formats, there is a summary included. Most often,

• Sometimes, though, this initial summary is informative and geared

usually, but not always, refers to a summary written to a

usually, but not always, refers to a summary written to a

As you might imagine, short abstracts are typically

usually, but not always, refers to a summary written to a

As you might imagine, short abstracts are typically

Abstracts generally do not include illustrations.

usually, but not always, refers to a summary written to a

As you might imagine, short abstracts are typically

Abstracts generally do not include illustrations.

Sometimes the word "abstract" is preceded by the word

usually, but not always, refers to a summary written to a technical

As you might imagine, short abstracts are typically descriptive and

Abstracts generally do not include illustrations.

Sometimes the word "abstract" is preceded by the word "descriptive,"

Other times the word "abstract" is preceded by the word "technical,"

is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an

is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an

Because it is informative, it includes the most important

is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an

Because it is informative, it includes the most important

Because it is written to a management audience, it includes

is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an

Because it is informative, it includes the most important

Because it is written to a management audience, it includes

Stylistically, it is tailored so that a manager can read it

is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an informative

Because it is informative, it includes the most important results and

Because it is written to a management audience, it includes enough

Stylistically, it is tailored so that a manager can read it quickly and

Whether it contains illustrations or not depends on the format

The text portion of your formal report contains the introduction,

Begin all major headings ("Introduction," for example) on a new page.

The introduction of a report prepares readers for understanding the

The discussion or middle is the story of your work.

The discussion or middle is the story of your work.

You do not necessarily present results in the order that you