PHYSICAL OPTICS

The Capsular Theory of Light

Leucippus and Democritus

light is a flow of miniscule particles. It

was thought, travel instantaneously
between points separated by any
distance, which is to say at infinite
speed.
 Reflection
Law of
rectilinear
propagation
Refraction
Reflection Refraction
DIFFRACTION
 According to the corpuscular theory of light

Collimated light
should remain so

Diverges 
diffraction
 Law of rectilinear propagation, light should not change
direction after transversing an aperture.

Apertures do cause light to change direction 

diffraction
The Superposition of Waves
When 2 or more waves overlap, their amplitudes will add or
cancel
 A. Waves overlap in phase

B. Waves overlap out of phase

C. Waves partialy overlap

COHERENCE
 Light = wave trains
 Coherence length : the length of one wave trains with longer section
 Coherence time : the time required for light to travel one coherence
length
Schematic of young’s experiment
demonstrating that light is a wave
phenomenon.
Electromagnetic Waves

Young  light is a wave

The corpuscular theory of light phenomenon

What type of
wave?

Maxwell  Electromagnetic
Waves
POLARIZATION
Optical Media and Refractive Index

Refractive index also varies with wavelength.

In a vacuum, all wavelengths travel at the same speed. In any other medium,
short wavelengths usually travel more slowly than long wavelengths.
(dispersion)
In the human eye, chromatic dispersion leads to chromatic aberration.

Abbe number (V) :

Reflection, Transmision, and Absorption
 Some light is reflected and How much light is
some transmitted. reflected ?

How much light is

transmitted ?

Depends on :
1. Difference in index of refraction
2. Angle of incidence
 Reflection, Transmision, and Absorption

The boundary between 2 different optical

media

when light reaches an optical interface, some

light is transmitted through the interface,
some is reflected, and some is absorbed, or
converted to heat, by the interface.

The amount of light transmitted, reflected,

and absorbed depends on several factors
Law of Reflection
The angle of incidence (i)
The angle of reflection (r)
i = r
 Reflected light is completely polarized if the angle of incidence equals the Brewster angle :

When light move from a higher to lower refractive index medium, it will be completely reflected
(total internal reflection [TIR]) if the angle of incidence exceeds the Critical angle :

Absorption is usually expressed as an Optical density (OD) :

The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 The frequency of EM radiation has no specific upper or lower limit.
 The spectrum is divided into regions in which the radiation is
generated and detected by similar techniques and equipment.
 Color Perception

 “spectral colors”  area of the retina is stimulated by single frequency.

 Rainbow = spectral colors
QUANTUM THEORY
 LIGHT SOURCES

Thermal Luminescent Fluorescence

Phosphorescen
Lasers
ce
 THERMAL SOURCES
 The atoms in warm material  thermally agitated  radiate EM waves.
 At body temperature (37 C), for instance, most of the radiated energy
occurs in the infrared spectrum.
 Temperature of an object increases  produce EM energy at visible
frequencies  glowing red  brighter  bluer.
 Luminescent Sources
Luminescent sources produce light as a result of electron transition between
different energy states.

 The differences between energy states

in each element are unique. Because
every element has unique set of energy
levels, each produces a unique visible
spectrum.
 FLUORESCENCE
 Occurs only in materials possessing close spacing between energy
levels.
 PHOSPHORESCENCE
 In most case, electron remain in elevated energy states for very short periods.
However, the elevated state is sometimes “metastable” ; that is, the elctron
may remain in the elevated state for several seconds, minutes, or perhaps
even days before droping back down.
 LASERS
 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
LASER – TISSUE INTERACTIONS
 Laser surgery involves 1 of 4 light-tissue interactions :

PHOTOCOAGULATIO • Heat generated by the absorption of light denatures proteins

N

• This type of laser is pulsed, so the energy it produces is

released in a very short time, producing a large momentary
PHOTODISRUPTION power. Also, the laser beam is focused, concentrating the
power into a small area.

• Uses high-energy ultraviolet photons to break covalent

PHOTOABLATION chemical bonds, no heat is produced – doesn’t damage
adjacent tissue

PHOTOACTIVATION • The conversion of a chemical from one form to another by light

 LIGHT SCATTERING
 When light travel trough a particulate medium and hits these particles,
the initial direction in which it was moving may get deflected or
scattered in different direction
 MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT
 The quantitative measurement of light is carried out in 2 different ways :

 Radiometry is the measurement of EM radiation occuring between 3 x 10 11

Hz and 3 x 1016 Hz
 Photometry measures the human visual system’s psychophysical response
to light.
 LIGHT HAZARDS
Although the eye requires light in order to
function, it has long been recognized that light
itself in excess, particularly at certain
wavelengths, can be hazardous to various parts
of the eye.
GEOMETRIC OPTICS

The study of light and images

using geometric principles

Using linear rays to represent the

paths traveled by light
RAYS, REFRACTION, AND REFLECTION
• Consider as an
arrow denoting
the direction of
propagation of
Rays energy
perpendicular to
a wavefront
surface
Figure 1-1 Rectilinear propagation of light through uniform
medium. Here, the speed of light is constant with spherical
wavefronts and straight rays. Note that in nonuniform
medium, the speed of light is variable and rays are not
straight.
(Illustration developed b y Leon Strauss, MD, PhD.)
 Light travels through uniform media

Spherical wavefronts and straightline rays

Light travels through non-uniform media

Meet the interface between media

Refraction Reflection Absorbtion
ROUGH SURFACE VS SMOOTH
SURFACE
POINT SOURCES, PENCILS, AND BEAMS
OF LIGHT
 A BEAM OF LIGHT INCLUDES MANY
BUNDLES OF LIGHT THAT ARISE FROM
THE POINTS OF AN EXTENDED SOURCE
 THE CONCEPT OF CONJUGATE
POINTS IS ILLUSTRATED BY DIRECT
OPHTHALMOSCOPY
Conjugacy in direct ophthalmoscopy

An image of the
patient’s retina is
present on the
examiner’s retina
OBJECT CHARACTERISTICS
Objects Their location with respect to
characterize
d by : Location the imaging system

Luminous : if an object point

Luminuou produces its own light

s If it does not produce its own

light, it can only be imaged if
it is reflective & illuminated.
IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS

Magnification Location

Image
Characterisctics

Depth of Focus Quality

 MAGNIFICATION
Axial /
Transverse Angular
Longitudinal
magnification magnification
magnificatiom
 CARDINAL POINT
NODAL POINT PRINCIPAL POINT

FOCAL POINT

Most optical systems have a pair of nodal points.

Occasionally, the nodal points overlap, appearing as a Single point. The nodal points are always on the optical axis

The essential property of the nodal points is that these 2 angles are equal for any selected object point. Because of this feature,
nodal points are useful for establishing a relationship among transverse magnification, object distance, and image distance.
 IMAGE LOCATION
 the distance (measured along the optical axis)
between : a reference point associated with the optical
system & the image

Image distance is measured from the posterior principal point to the

image.

Value :
When the image is to the right of the When the image is to the left of the
reference point : (+) reference point : (-)
 Depth of focus
If we perform a basic imaging demonstration with a lens and focus an image
of a light source on a paper, we notice that if the paper is moved forward or
backward within a range, the image remains relatively focused  depth of
focus
With the paper positioned outside this region, the image appears blurred.

Depth of field is the same idea applied to objects. If a camera or other

optical system is focused on an object, nearby objects are also in focus.
Objectswithin the range of depth of field will be in focus
 IMAGE QUALITY
Each object point produces a 2-mm-diameter spot in the
image. These spots are called blur circles.

The farther the image is from the pinhole, the larger the blur
circle in the image.

To some extent, the loss of detail is mitigated with the use of a

smaller pinhole.
Images are imperfect facsimiles, not exact scaled duplicates of
the original object.

Stigmatic Image : A perfect point image of an object point is

Theoretically, if a perfect point image could be produced for

every point of an object, the image would be an exact duplicate
of the object.
LIGHT PROPAGATION

Light travels through a variety of

materials. A medium is any material that
transmits light.
 OPTICAL MEDIA AND REFRACTIVE
INDEX

Refractive index is the

Light travels at different Light moves fastest in a ratio of the speed of
speeds in different vacuum and slower light in a vacuum to the
media through any material speed of light in the
medium (always ≥ to 1)
  Refractive index varies with temperature and barometric pressure 
polymer silicon
Refractive index also vaires with wavelength →in vacuum all
wavelength travel at the same speed

In other medium  short wavelength travel more slowly

dispersion

Intermediate
Long  RED Short  blue
green & yellow

abberation
LAW OF RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION

The law of rectilinear propagation is

Light in a homogeneous medium
inaccurate insofar as it does not
travels along straightline paths
account for the effect of diffraction
called rays
as light traverses an aperture
 OPTICAL INTERFACES
The boundary between 2 different optical
media

when light reaches an optical interface, some

light is transmitted through the interface,
some is reflected, and some is absorbed, or
converted to heat, by the interface.

The amount of light transmitted, reflected,

and absorbed depends on several factors
LAW OF REFLECTION
The angle of
incidence (i)
The angle of reflection
(r)
i = r
 LAW OF REFRACTION (SNELL’S LAW)

The angle of incidence (i)

The angle of refraction/transmission (t)
When lower to higher refractive index  bends
light toward the surface normal
travels
through
medium
higher to a lower refractive index 
bends away from the surface normal
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
TIR occurs when light travels from a high-index medium to a low-index
medium and the angle of incidence exceeds a certain critical angle.

the incident ray does not pass through the interface; all light is reflected
back into the high-index medium.
CLINICAL EXAMPLE

Total internal reflection (TIR) makes it impossible to view

the eye’s anterior chamber angle

(A). Light from the angle never escapes the

eye. Using a contact lens to eliminate the air at
the surface of the cornea (B) overcomes the
problem.
DISPERSION Refractive indices are higher
for short wavelengths and
lower for long wavelengths

Blue light travels more

slowly than red light in most
media

Snell’s law predicts a greater

Chromatic dispersion. angle of refraction for blue
light than for red light
REFLECTION & REFRACTION AT
CURVED SURFACE
THE FERMAT PRINCIPLE
 PINHOLE IMAGING
The simplest imaging device is a Make a pinhole near
the center of a large
Light a candle
pinhole aperture sheet of aluminium
foil

Hold a sheet of plain

Extinguish all other
white or, better,
illumination in the
waxed paper about 2
room
feet from the candle

Place the pinhole Observe an inverted

midway between the image of the candle
paper and the candle flame on the paper
 LOCATING THE IMAGE
THE LENSMAKER’S EQUATION

Location of the image depends on the location of the object

Establishes relationship between the shape of refracting surface and

its optical function.
 LME says 2 things

First, the location of the image depends on the location of the object.

• As the object moves closer to the lens, the image moves farther
away
• The object and image always move in the same direction (right)
However not by the same amount
Second, LME establishes a relationship between the shape of
the refracting surface and its optical function.

The radius of the spherical refracting surface

affects the image characteristics. The
refractive power (or simply power) of a
spherical refracting surface is
 OPHTHALMIC LENSES

Basic principles of First Order Optics to show how lenses and

optical system are modeled

Concept of
VERGENCE
 VERGENCE
4m 2m 1m 0.5m 0.33m 0.25m 0.2m
0.25D 0.5D 1D 2D 3D 4D 5D

- = direction of ray as it passes between object point to lens

- The lens close to object collects a large fraction of light radiating
from object point  as it moves away, it collects a smaller fraction.
- Inversely propotional, reciprocal of the distance.
 REDUCED VERGENCE

• Vergence x Refractive Index of the medium

• The LME: light from an object point diverges, but the degree of divergence

decreases as the light moves farther from the object point

• Light encounters refracing surface, just as it reach the surface it has a

reduced vergence (n/o) + P

 TRANSVERSE MAGNIFICATION
• The LME : object-image distances are measured from the vertex
Measured from nodal point
s Point where surface intersects
with optical axis

: rays intersecting the center of curvature strike the surface

at normal incidence and travel undeviated through the nodal points.
 LENS COMBINATION

• In paraxial optics, the way to analyze a combination of lenses = look at

each lens individually

• Only after locating the first image is it possible to calculate the vergence

light as it reaches the second lens

• Image from the 1st lens is the Object of 2nd lens

 FOCAL POINTS AND PLANES
 Fa : anterior (primary) focal point
 Fp : posterior (secondary) focal point

Light that emanates from the anterior focal All object points in the anteror
point, leaves the lens collimated focal plane focus to plus optical
infinity
Collimated on-axis light from minus optical Collimated off-axis rays focus to the
infinity focuses to the posterior focal point posterior focal plane
 PRAXIAL RAY TRACING THROUGH CONVEX
SPHERICAL LENSES

 Only 2 rays are actually needed.

 The first 2 rays traverse Fa and Fp
 Final ray  central ray / chief ray traverse the nodal points.
 f = 1/D
 Ray tracing through a convex spherical lens.

The object is located inside the anterior focal The image is magnified, upright, and
point virtual and is located to the left of the
object
 PARAXIAL RAY TRACING THROUGH CONCAVE
SPHERICAL LENSES

 A concave or negative lens makes light more divergent.

Incoming light directed through the

anterior focal point, Fa, of a concave
sherical lens exits the lens collimated

Collimated incoming light paralel

to the optical axis leaves the lens
as if it had come through the
posterior focal point
No matter where a real object is placed in front of a concave (negative) spherical lens,
the image is upright, minified, and virtual.
 FOCAL LENGTH
 Distance from the anterior principal point to the anterior focal point 
anterior focal length
 Distance from the posterior principal point to the posterior focal point 
posterior focal length
 Negative  when focal point is to the left of the principal point
 Positive  when focal point is to the right of principal point
Knapp’Law
 The adult brain can fuse retinal images that differs as much as 8%
 The child’s brain can handle an even greater disparity
 Mirrors
1. Reflection from a plane mirror 2. Spherically Curved Mirrors
 SPHEROCYLINDRICAL LENSES
 Cylinder has no curvature in one direction and has spherical
curvature in the meridian perpendicular to that direction
 Spherocylindrical lens  has the shape of torus`
REFRACTION THROUGH CYLINDRICAL
LENSES
 A CYLINDRICAL LENS IS A LENS WHICH FOCUSES LIGHT PASSES
THROUGH ONTO A LINE INSTEAD OF ONTO A POINT, AS A
SPHERICAL LENS WOULD

 HAS DIFFERENT POWER IN VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL AXIS 

LIGHT PASSES THROUGH THEM AND FORM 2 FOCUSES 
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL

 HE LENS COMPRESSES THE IMAGE IN THE DIRECTION

PERPENDICULAR TO THIS LINE, AND LEAVES IT UNALTERED IN
THE DIRECTION PARALLEL TO IT
REFRACTION THROUGH CYLINDRICAL
LENSES
TO CONVERT A PRESCRIPTION FROM
POSITIVE CYCLINDER FORM 
NEGATIVE CYLINDER FORM:
 New sphere = algebraic sum of the old sphere and clinder
 New cylinder = old cylinder, but opposite sign
 Axis + 900
CONOID OF STURM  SPHERICAL
EQUIVALENT
 PRISM
 Prism power  amount of deviation produced as a light traverss the prism
 The deviation  number of centimeters of deflection measured at a distance of
100 cm from the prism, expressed in prism diopters (Δ)
FRESNEL PRISM