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Metodologia e Gestão

da Sala de Aula
Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching

Andreia Fernandes
andreia.lof@gmail.com
Let’s Reflect!

How did you learn English?


How many people already speak English?
According to David Crystal, one of the world's leading
experts on the language, around one-quarter of the world's
population can communicate reasonably well in English.
Non-native speakers of English outnumber native speakers
three to one.

EFL ESL EAL

English as a English as a English as an


Foreign Second Additional
Language Language Language
Common European Framework of Reference for Language (CEFR)

An international standard for describing language ability.


It is used around the world to describe learners’ language skills.
Main Trends in Twentieth-Century Language Teaching
• 20th century :language teaching seen as a profession.

• Development of principles and procedures for the design of teaching


methods and materials.

• The quest for better methods was a preoccupation of many teachers


and applied linguists.

• Common to each method: the belief that the teaching practices it


supports provide a more effective and theoretically sound basis for
teaching than the methods that preceded it. But, which method is best?
“Teachers always want to know what is new. They know that teaching
is difficult work, and they are always searching for ways to make it
more successful. It is also sometimes the case that methods or
practices that fall into disfavor in one era are resurrected in another.
For many years, teachers were told they should never use the sts’
native language in the classroom – that they should never translate –
even when all the sts shared a language in common.
But there is not such thing that newer methods are better in all
respects than older methods.”
(Larsen-Freeman&Anderson, 2012)
A Brief History of Language Teaching

Whereas today English is the world´s most widely studied


foreign language, 500 years ago it was Latin, for it was
the dominant language of education, commerce,
religion and government in the West World.

16th century – French, Italian and English became


important due to political changes in Europe and Latin
gradually became displaced as a language of spoken
and written communication.
17th – 19th century - the study of classical Latin and an analysis of its
grammar and rhetoric became the model for foreign language study.
16th, 17th and 18th centuries – children entering “grammar school” were
initially given rigorous introduction to Latin grammar.
Since Latin was regarded as the classical and the most ideal form of
language; therefore, the role of language study in the curriculum reflected
the long-established status of Latin.
As “modern” languages began to enter the curriculum of European
schools in the 18th century, they were taught using the same basic
procedures that were used for teaching Latin. Textbooks consisted of
statements of abstract grammar rules, lists of vocabulary, and sentences
for translation. Speaking the foreign language was not the goal, and oral
practice was limited to sts reading aloud the sentences they had
translated. These sentences were constructed to illustrate the grammatical
system of the language and consequently bore no relation to the
language of real communication.
(Titone, 1968, p.28)
Approach:
A conjunction of ideas related to the nature and teaching of a
given language

Method:
A systematic presentation of language

Technique:
Each specific strategy that we use in the classroom
Approach

Method

Technique

Language teaching involves approaches that lead to methods,


methods that are broken down into procedures, and procedures that
are a collection of techniques.
Timeline of Teaching Methods/Approach

Communicative
Grammar-Translation Audio-lingualism Language
Suggestopedia Teaching

Direct Method The Silent Way


TPR
CLL
Grammar translation – first know in the USA as the Prussian Method.

(A book by B. Sears, an American classics teacher, published in 1845 was entitled The
Ciceronian or the Prussian Method of Teaching the Elements of the Latin Language
(Kelly, 1969)).

Main Features:

• The goal of foreign language study is to learn language in order to


read its literature or to benefit from the mental discipline and
intellectual development. It involves detailed analysis of grammar
rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of
translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language.

• Reading and writing are the main focus. Little attention is paid to
speaking or listening.
• Vocabulary selection is based on the reading texts used. Words
are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and
memorization.

• The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice.


The lessons are mainly based on sentence translation into and out
of the target language.

• Accuracy is emphasized. Sts are expected to attain high


standards in translation.

• The st’s native language is used to explain new items and to


enable comparisons between L1 and L2.

• Grammar is taught deductively – presentation and study of


grammar rules, which are often practiced through translation
exercises.
A deductive approach (rule-driven/top down) starts with the
presentation of a rule and is followed by examples in which the rule is
applied.

An inductive approach (rule-discovery/bottom up) starts with some


examples from which a rule is inferred.
Thornbury, 1999

The Grammar-Translation method is still used in situations where


understanding literary texts is the primary focus of foreign language
study and there is little need for a speaking knowledge of the
language.
What is the teacher’s role?
The roles are very traditional.
The teacher is the authority in the classroom.
What is the nature of st-teacher interaction? What is the role of st-st
interaction?
Most of the interaction in the classroom is from the teachers to the sts.
There is little st initiation and little st-st interaction.
How is evaluation accomplished?
Written tests – sts are asked to translate from their native language into the
target language or vice versa. Questions about the target culture or
questions that ask sts to apply grammar rules are also common.
The Direct Method

The Direct Method is also called:

The Anti-
The Reform The Natural The Berlitz
Grammatical
Method Method Method
Method
The Direct Method was developed by Maximilian Berlitz.

Towards the middle of the 19th century.

As a reaction to the Grammar Translation Method.

It is named “direct” because meaning should be


connected directly with the target language without
translation into the native language.
A foreign language could be taught without translation or the use of
the learner’s native language if meaning was conveyed directly
through demonstration and action.

Classroom language instruction was conducted exclusively in the


target language.

Only everyday vocabulary and expressions were taught.

Grammar was taught inductively.

Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.

Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.


The Audiolingual Method
Background
ASTP
Army Specialized Training Program
A military training program instituted by the USA Army during
World War II at a number of American universities to meet
wartime demands for junior officers and soldiers with technical
skills.
The Army Method had a significant impact on linguists and the way
foreign languages were taught.

Many sts entered the USA to study – emergence of the American


approach to ESL which had become audiolingualism.
Main feature Emphasized mechanical habit
formation (drills, memorization).

Combination of structural linguistic (Leonard Bloomfield), contrastive


analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology (Skinner).

Principle: Speech is language. “…Primarily what is spoken and only


secondarily what is written”. (Brooks, 1964)
Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit
formation.
Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather than by
making mistakes.
By memorizing dialogues and performing pattern drills the chances of
producing mistakes are minimized.
Language is verbal behavior – the automatic production and
comprehension of utterances – and can be learned by inducing the sts
to do likewise.
Oral proficiency is equated with accurate pronunciation and grammar.
Learner Roles
The fact that in the early stages learners do not always understand the
meaning of what they are repeating is not perceived as a drawback, for by
listening to the teacher, imitating accurately, and responding to and
performing controlled tasks, they are learning a new form of verbal
behavior.
Teacher Roles
Central and active. Totally teacher-centered.
The teacher models the target language, controls the direction and pace
of learning and monitors and corrects the learners’ performance. S/he
must keep the learners attentive by varying drills and tasks and choosing
relevant situations to practice structures. The T introduces, sustains and
harmonizes the learning of the four skills: listening, speaking, reading and
writing.
Decline of Audiolingualism

The theoretical foundations of Audiolingualism were attacked as being


unsound in terms of both language theory and learning theory. Practical
results fell short of expectations. Sts were found to be unable to transfer skills
acquired to real communication outside the classroom. Many learners found
the experience of studying through audiolingual procedures to be boring
and unsatisfying. Chomsky rejected the structuralist approach to language
description as well as the behaviorist theory of language learning.
“Language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behavior
characteristically involves innovation, formation of new sentences and
patterns in accordance with rules of great abstractness and intricacy”.
(Chomsky, 1966, p. 153)
Alternative Approaches and Methods

70s / 80s – a major shift in language teaching.

TPR – Total Physical Response

The Silent Way

Suggestopedia
TPR – Total Physical Response

Physical movement to react to verbal input.


TPR was created by Dr. James J Asher.
It is based upon the way that children learn their mother tongue. Parents
have 'language-body conversations' with their children, the parent instructs
and the child physically responds to this. The parent says, "Look at mummy"
or "Give me the ball" and the child does so. These conversations continue for
many months before the child actually starts to speak itself. Even though it
can't speak during this time, the child is taking in all of the language; the
sounds and the patterns. Eventually when it has decoded enough, the child
reproduces the language quite spontaneously.
TPR attempts to mirror this effect in the language classroom.
When should I use it?

TPR can be used to teach and practise many things.

• Vocabulary connected with actions (smile, chop, headache, wriggle)


• Tenses past/present/future and continuous aspects (Every morning I clean
my teeth, I make my bed, I eat breakfast)
• Classroom language (Open your books)
• Imperatives/Instructions (Stand up, Close your eyes)
• Storytelling
Why should I use it in the classroom?

• It is a lot of fun, students enjoy it and it can be a real stirrer in the class. It
lifts the pace and the mood.

• It is very memorable. It really helps students to remember phrases or


words.

• It is good for kinaesthetic learners who need to be active in the class.

• It can be used in large or small classes. It doesn't really matter how many
students you have as long as you are prepared to take the lead, the
students will follow.

• It doesn't require a lot of preparation or materials.

• It is very effective with teenagers and young learners.


The Silent Way
The Silent Way – developed in the 60s by Caleb Gattegno.

Basic elements:

Colored charts
(called Fidel charts)

Colored Cuisenaire rods


Sounds are taught by colors.
Principles:

Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than


remembers and repeats what is to be learned.

Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects. The rods and the


color-coded pronunciation charts provide physical foci for st learning and
also create memorable images to facilitate student recall.

Learning is made easier by problem-solving using the target language.

Example:
The teacher shows the learners a small red Cuisenaire rod and a bigger
blue one and says ‘The blue one is bigger than the red one'. The learners
repeat this. The teacher then substitutes the rods to produce other
models, and finally encourages the learners to produce their own
comparisons.
Areas of target language where Cuisenaire rods can be useful:

• word boundaries

• contracted forms

• prepositions

• word order

• word stress
Teacher Roles

The teacher is a technician or an engineer who facilitates learning.

The teacher’s role is one of neutral observer, neither praise nor criticize,
merely looks for continued improvement.

The teacher is silent. The teacher’s presence in the classroom is limited to


providing a model of the language that the sts are going to work on.
Suggestopedia

Originally developed in the 1970s by the Bulgarian educator Georgi


Lozanov, who argued that a relaxed mental state was a precondition for
learning and that teachers should employ the power of suggestion in
class.
Lozanov – ties in tradition to yoga and Soviet psychology.
Basic features:

Decoration
Furniture
Arrangement of the classroom
Use of music
Authoritative behavior of the teacher
Classroom set-up

• Armchair
• Light is comfortable
• Everything is bright and colorful
• Posters
• Music
• The teacher speaks confidently.
• The teacher leads the class in various activities involving the
dialogue, for example, question-and-answer, repetition and
translation.
• The teacher should integrate indirect positive suggestion into the
learning situation.
Classroom set-up

Fine Arts – one of the ways the sts’ mental reserves are stimulated is through
integration of the fine arts (music, drama or paintings).

Enjoy your learning – the teacher gives the sts the impression that learning is
easy and enjoyable.

Choosing a new identity – it enhances sts’ feeling of security and allows them
to be more open.
Language Skills

Listening is focused on relaxation through music. (Baroque music)

Speaking is focused on dialogues to improve communication.

Reading – the teacher reads several times to sts varying the tone and rhythm.

Writing is presented explicitly and spontaneously.


Language Skills
Some people can find classical music boring and irritating instead of
stimulating.

Exaggeration of rhythm may be perceived odd and illogical.

Financial and environmental limitations.

Can only be used for small groups.

No provision and preparation for intermediate and advanced levels.


Teaching Young Learners
Unmotivated Students
Triangle Management
Physical
Affective
Cognitive
Personalize

Teens seek meaning!


Use choice!
Teens are trying to be independent.
Giving them some choice and some control motivate them.
Use what they know!
Use their interest and passions in the class content.
Update!
They want to know about the now!
Try proactive class control!
Teens want a teacher in control, but will reject authority.
Use positive behavior management.
Teens need to express themselves.
Use projects, presentations, poster creation...
Be INSISTENT.
Be CONSISTENT.
Be PERSISTENT.
But most of all…

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