Experimental Techniques

Unit I – Forces and Strain Measurement

Strain Gauge - Definition
 A strain gauge is a device which is used to
measure the dimensional changes(strain) on
the surface of the structure by converts the
mechanical displacement in to a change of
electrical resistance .
 The basic principle of operation of a strain
gage is simple: when strain is applied to a
thin metallic wire, its dimension changes,
thus changing the resistance of the wire.
 It can be used for measurement of force,
torque, pressure, acceleration etc.
Classification
 Mechanical strain gauges
 Electrical strain gauges
 Optical strain gauges
 Pneumatic strain gauges
 Acoustical strain gauges
Mechanical strain gauges
 The mechanical devices are generally known as
extensometer and are used to measure strain under
static or gradually varying loading condition.
Working Principle
 These gauges are usually provided with two knife
edges .
 They are clamped firmly in contact with the test
component at a specific distance.
 When the test component is strained, the two knife
edge undergoes a small relative displacement.
 •This displacement is amplified through a mechanical
linkage and magnified displacement or strain is
displayed on a calibrated scale.
Types of Mechanical Strain gauges
 Berry Strain gauges
 Huggenbeger Extensometer
 Johansson Extensometer
Berry Strain gauges
 These strain gauges uses a lever
magnification with dial indicator to show
magnified motion.
 It consists of one rigid frame and two
conically pointed contact pointers.
 One pointer is rigidly fixed to the frame
while the other is pivoted at a point on
the frame.
 The displacement in the lever is magnified
and indicated in the dial indicator.
Huggenbeger Extensometer
 This extensometer has a set of compound
levers which are relatively small in size and
high magnification factor.
 These gauges are highly accurate (10 micro
strain).
 The movable knife edge rotates the lever at
lower pivot, the lever in turn rotates the
indicator pointer at upper pivot point with
the help of a link.
 Formula for measurement = L1L2/a1a2
 Gauge length range - 6.5 to 100 mm
Johansson Extensometer
 These extensometers uses tension tape or
twisted metal strip between two knife edges.
 Half of the strip is twisted to one direction
and remaining half is twisted to other
direction and a pointer is fixed at the center
of the strip.
 On application of load, displacement in the
movable knife edge takes place with
high amplification due to stretching of
twisted metal strip.
Electrical Strain Gauge
 Unbonded strain gauge
 Bonded strain gauge
 Foil strain gauge
 Weldable strain gauge
General Working Principle
 In electrical resistance strain gauge the
displacement or strain is measured as a
function of resistance change produced by
the displacement in the gauging circuit.
 When the conductor is stretched, its
length will increase and area of cress
section will decrease this will result in
change in resistance.
 Change in resistance per unit strain is
defined as Gauge Factor.
Unbonded strain gauge
 The principal of the un-bonded metallic strain gauge
is based on the change in electrical resistance of a
metallic wire due to the change in the tension of the
wire.
 This type consists of a stationary frame and a
movable platform. Fine wire loops are wounded
around the insulated pins with pretension.
 Relative motion between the platform and the frame
increases the tension in two loops, while decreasing
tension in the other two loops.
 These four elements are connected approximately to
a four arm Wheat stone bridge. These type strain
gauges are used for measurement of acceleration,
pressure, force etc.
Bonded strain gauge
 The bonded metallic type of strain gauge consists
of a strain sensitive conductor (wire) mounted on
a small piece of paper or plastic backing.
 In this gauge is cemented to the surface of the
structural member to be tested.
 The wire grid may be & flat type or wrap-around.
 In the flat type after attaching the lead wires to
the ends of the grids, a second piece of paper is
cemented over the wire as cover.
 In the wrap-around type, the wire is wound
around a cylindrical core in the form of a close
wound helix.
Foil type
 The strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible
backing which supports a metallic foil pattern.
 The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable
adhesive. As the object is deformed, the foil is
deformed, causing its electrical resistance to
change.
 Foil type strain gauges having a zigzag conductor
made out of an etched foil
 Very widely used as bonded strain gauges
 This resistance change, usually measured using a
Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the
quantity known as the gauge factor.
Wheatstone Bridge
 A Wheatstone Bridge is an electrical circuit.
 Used in a load cell to measure an overall change in resistance.
 Increases sensitivity and reduces the affects of temperature.
Weldable strain gauge
 The weldable strain gauge consists of a strain
sensitive element, which is nickel Chromium or
platinum Tungsten, placed within a small diameter
stainless steel tube.
 The strain element is insulated from the tube with
highly compacted ceramic insulation.
 This gauge is subsequenty spot welded to structure
under test and provides bonding to transfer the
strain.
 The test specimen which is put into tension or
compression, the stress is transmitetd through the
weld to mounting flange and in to strain tube.
 These gauges can be used for static or dynamic
applications.
Optical strain gauges
The optical strain gauges are used to
measure elongation as well as deflection.
Following are the two type of optical strain
gauges,
 Marten’s optical gauge
 Tuckerman Optical Gauge
Marten’s optical gauge
 In marten’s optical gauge a single mirror
system is to be used.
 The pivoted knife edge carries a mirror and
the other end of this arm is fastened to
specimen.
 When the specimen elongates the measuring
knife edge will rotate about its point there
by tilting the mirror.
 The Reflection of the illuminated scale in this
mirror is viewed through the telescope.
Tuckerman Optical Gauge
 In this instrument, there are two mirrors. One is movable and
another one is fixed.
 The autocollimator consists of a lamp source to produce
parallel beam of rays and a scale to measure the deflection of
the reflected ray.
 A tungsten carbide rocker (lozenge) acts as a moving knife; one
face of this lozenge is polished to act as a mirror.
 If the specimen deforms, due to the relative rotation between
the fixed mirror and the movable mirror, the strain is measured
with autocollimator and results will be in terms of images.
 Actually three images are visible on the reticule one gives the
measurement of strain and other two helping alignment of the
gauge.
 it can measure both static and dynamic strains and cyclic
strains up to 180 Hz.
Pneumatic Strain Gauges
 It is a device used for measuring the
dimension changes of the object based on
the flow rate of air escaping
from a nozzle under pressure.
 By using this gauge, it is possible to
measure 1mm.
 These gauges are suitable for both Static
and dynamic strain measurements. These
are sensitive, robust and reliable.
Acoustic Strain Gauges
 It is a instrument used for measuring
structural strains.
 It consists of a length of fine wire mounted.
 its tension varies with strain.
 The wire is plucked with an electromagnetic
device, and the resulting frequency of
vibration is measured to determine the
amount of strain.
 It is used to measure strains in concrete
structure, concrete dams, rock, steel
structures etc.