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Electrochemistry
CHEM*7234 / CHEM 720
Lecture 4
INSTRUMENTATION
OHM'S LAW
V = Voltage
I = Current
R = Resistance
V=I·R
or
V/I = R
Example:
I=?
V=I*R I=V/R I = 9 [V] / 18 [Ω]
I = 0.5 [A]
Series connection
I = I1 = I2 = I3
Vtotal = V1 + V1 + V3
We know that the current through each resistor (from the first
equation) is just I.
so
1 1 1 1
Rtotal R1 R2 R3
Capacitors
qc 1
Vc i dt where:
C C
if Vc – voltage across the
i imax sin( ωt) where ω 2f
capacitor
then qc – charge stored
1
Vc imax sin (ωt) dt C – capacitance
C
1 π
imax sin( ωt - )
ωC 2
1
Xc imax sin( t - ) where Xc
2 C
Vc = Xc · Imax (sint - /2)
Vc max = XC.Imax
ZRC R XC 2 2
Low Pass Filter
Vin = ZRC· I
and
Vout = XC · I
XC 1
Vout Vin ZRC R XC
2 2
XC
ZRC 2fC
XC
Vout Vin
R 2 XC 2
f small f large
XC large XC small
Z XC XC/Z small
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
R 1
Vout Vin ZRC R XC
2 2
XC
ZRC 2fC
R
Vout Vin
R 2 XC 2
f small f large
XC large XC small
Z XC Z R
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
General Response
Electronicallyspeaking, the
output will do whatever is
necessary to make the voltage
difference between the inputs
zero !!
GOLDEN RULE #2
+ 15 V
I
N - OUTPUT
P
U
T +
S
- 15 V
In op-amps (as in life) you never get anything for free. The
gain () is achieved by using power from a power supply
(usually 15V). Thus the output of your op-amp can never
exceed the power supply voltage !
Ideal Op-Amp Behaviour
infinite gain ( = )
Rin =
Rout = 0
Bandwidth =
The + and – terminals have nothing to do with polarity they simply
indicate the phase relationship between the input and output
signals.
-
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
Signal
Signal
0.0
0.0
-0.5
+
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
-
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
Signal
Signal
0.0
0.0
+
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
- - V0
+ +
Rf
Vin Rin - -
V0
S
+ +
Frequency Response of Op-Amps
The op-amp doesn’t respond to all frequencies equally.
Voltage Follower
- V0
Vin
+
Vo = V in
Rf
Iin
- V0
+
Vo = - Iin Rf
Summing Amplifiers
V1 R1 Rf
V2 R2
- V0
V3 R3 +
V1 V2 V3
Vo - Rf
R1 R2 R3
Integrating Amplifier
R -
Vi V0
+
1
Vo -
RC Vi dt