Fluid

Compiled by Rabin
Height of capillarity
Basic
1. Atmospheric pressure is aka barometric pressure.
2. Standard atmospheric pressure = 101.3kN/m2 = 10.3 m of water = 760mm
of Hg= 760 torr = 14.70 pounds per square inch
3. Near Earth’s surface the pressure decreases with height at a rate of about 3.5
millibars for every 30 metres. However, over cold air the decrease in
pressure can be much steeper because its density is greater than warmer
air. The pressure at any level in the atmosphere may be interpreted as the
total weight of the air above a unit area at any elevation. At higher
elevations, there are fewer air molecules above a given surface than a
similar surface at lower levels.
Pressure vs Altitude & Temperature vs Altitude
Measurement of pressure
Manometer is used to
measure liquid
pressure
It measures high
pressure, vacuum
pressure and pressure
in pipes and channels
Piezometer measures moderate and static pressure
Differential manometer is used to measure pressure
between two points in a pipe.
Total pressure and Center of pressure
• The total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface
(either plane or curved) when the fluid comes in contact with the surface.
This force is always normal to the surface.
• The centre of pressure is defined as the point of application of the resultant
pressure on the surface.
• Horizontally immersed surface
Where w = Specific weight of the liquid, A = Area of the immersed surface, and
x (bar) = Depth of the centre of gravity of the immersed surface from the liquid
surface.
• The above expression holds good for all surfaces whether flat or curved.
• The depth of centre of pressure from the liquid surface,

•
• Inclined immersed surface. The total pressure on an inclined surface is
same but the centre of pressure is
• The reaction between two gate is given by P/2 sin  (As N = R)
Very important

• Center of buoyancy – the point through which buoyant force is supposed to

act .
• Meta center (MC) – the point about which a floating body oscillates , when it
is given small angular displacement. It may also be defined as the point of
intersection of line passing through CG and original (un-displaced) Center of
buoyancy (CB) and the vertical line passing through new CB of tilted
position.
• Meta centric height – the distance between CG and MC.
ULTRA LEGENDS

• Every thing should be considered WRT CG

• For floating body, M (metacenter) must lie above CG for stable equilibrium.
• For submerged body, B (center of buoyancy ) must lie above CG for stable
equilibrium.

𝑘2
Note – The time of oscillation of a floating body is 𝑇 = 2 𝜋
𝐺𝑀.𝑔

Where k = Radius of gyration of floating body about CG, GM = metacentric

height
Fluid Κinematics- elocity and cceleration without
considering Force or Energy.

• Velocity of a liquid is maximum in the center of the pipe and is minimum in

wall of the pipe.
• Streamline flow – in which each particle has definite path and the paths does
not intersect.

•
Coefficients
• CV average value = 0.97 (C.V. is very important).
• The value of Coefficient of velocity varies slightly with the different shapes
of the edges of the orifice. This value is very small for sharp-edged orifices.
For a sharp edged orifice, the value of CV increases with the head of water
(Khurmi MCQ questions) .
• CC average value = 0.64 ( The year I appeared in SLC)
• CQ average value = 0.60 to 0.64 ( 1st lot of my KTM stay; I was discharged
from home )

• Cr = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒

• Cr is often neglected, while solving numerical problems.

• Orifice is said to be ‘large’ ,if the head of liquid is less than 5 times the depth
of orifice. (head of liquid < five times depth of orifice)
• In orifice, v1 << v2
• In a small rectangular orifice, Q = Cd × a × 2𝑔𝐻 , where a = cross section
area of the orifice, H = height of the liquid above the centre of the orifice.
2
NOTE - for large rectangular orifice, dQ = Cd × B × dH × 2𝑔𝐻  × Cd × B
3
× 2𝑔 × ( H3/2 – h3/2)
For drowned orifice , Q= Cd × B ×(H1-H2) × 2𝑔𝐻 ,
Mouthpiece
• It is an attachment in form of small tube or pipe fixed to the orifice in order to increase the
discharge. Its length is 2 to 3 times diameter of the orifice.
• If the jet of water after contraction does not touch the sides of mouthpiece, then such
mouthpiece is said to be running free. The length of the mouthpiece = diameter of the orifice.
• Discharge of an internal orifice running free = 0.5 × a × 2𝑔𝐻 .
• If the jet of water after contraction expands and fills up the mouthpiece, then such mouthpiece
is said to be running full. The length of the mouthpiece > three times diameter of the orifice.
• Discharge of an internal mouthpiece running full= 0.707 ×a × 2𝑔𝐻.
• For an external mouthpiece, Q = 0.855 ×a × 2𝑔𝐻
• In a short , external cylindrical orifice, the vena contracta occurs at one-forth of the diameter
of the orifice.
• The Cd value of external mouthpiece depends upon length of the mouthpiece.
• If the length of the internal mouthpiece is less than 3 times the diameter of the orifice, it will
run free.
• Cd of internal mouthpiece is less than Cd of external mouthpiece.
Head loss formulae
• Head loss due to sudden enlargement =
(𝑉1−𝑉2)2
2𝑔

𝑉22 1 2
• Head loss due to sudden contraction =
2𝑔
×
𝐶𝑐
−1

• Loss of head at entrance = 0.5 ×𝑉2

2𝑔

• Loss of head at exit = 𝑉2

2𝑔

• Loss of head due to pipe fittings = 𝐾𝑉2

2𝑔

• Loss of head due to bend = 𝐾𝑉2

2𝑔

• Loss of head due to obstruction in the flow = 𝑉22

2𝑔
×
𝐴
(𝐴−𝑎)𝐶𝑐
−1
2
Biblical Capsules
1. The total mechanical energy of a fluid element in an inviscid and irrotational
flow remains the same everywhere in the flow field, while it does so only
along a streamline in an inviscid but rotational flow.
2. Apart from losses due to friction, the loss of mechanical energy is incurred,
in course of flow through a closed duct, when the path of the fluid stream is
suddenly changed due to any abrupt change in the geometry of the duct. In
long ducts, these losses are very small as compared to the friction loss and
hence they are termed as minor losses.
3. A venturimeter is the most accurate but the most expensive, while the
orificemeter is the least expensive but the least accurate. Flow nozzle falls in
between these two.
4. The discharge through an orifice is increased by fitting a short length of pipe
to the outside known as external mouthpiece. The discharge rate is
increased due to a decrease in the pressure at vena contracta within the
mouthpiece resulting in an increase in the effective head causing the flow.
The direct result from the previous slide….
• In an external or internal mouthpiece, the absolute pressure head at vena
contracta is zero when atmospheric pressure head is 10.3 m of water
(Standard pressure which is 1atm).
• In an external mouthpiece, the absolute pressure head at vena contracta is
less the atmospheric pressure head by an amount equal to 0.89 times the
height of the liquid, above the vena contracta. (look at the discharge formula)
• In an internal mouthpiece, the absolute pressure head at vena contracta is
less than the atmospheric pressure head by an amount equal to height of the
liquid above the vena contracta.
• But absolute pressure head at the vena contracta is the same as that of the
atmosphere in convergent mouthpiece.
• The discharge through a convergent mouthpiece is double the discharge
through an internal mouthpiece of the same diameter and head of water.
• An opening in the side of a tank or vessel such that the liquid surface with the
tank is below the top edge of the opening, is called notch. WHY? A weir is a
notch on a large scale, used, for example, to measure the flow of a river, and
may be sharp edged or have a substantial breadth in the direction of flow.
• A free nappe gives accurate measurement of discharge. Accuracy can be
further increased using ventilation.
• Though discharge is substantially increased in depressed (around 10 %) and
clinging weir (around 30 %), the accuracy is forever lost.
Ogee weir is used as spillway for a dam
Hydraulic radius vs Hydraulic mean depth

• Hydraulic radius is defined as the area of the flow section divided by the
wetted perimeter, whereas,
• Hydraulic mean depth is defined as the area of the flow section divided by the
top water surface width.
• In rectangular channels, hydraulic radius does not equal depth, but approaches
depth as the channel becomes very wide. However, the hydraulic mean depth
is the same as the depth of the rectangular flow section. It is more important
to understand which of the two is used where. Eg. While calculating frictional
head losses, Hydraulic Radius is used and while in Froude number and energy
relationships in open channel flow hydraulic mean depth gives desired results.
A submerged weir has water above the crest in d/s.
Channel flow

1. Pressure is atmospheric,
2. Water flows by gravity
3. There is no pressure head. So, HGL coincides with water surface.
4. The velocity is maximum at a distance of 0.05 times the height of the flow.
• The TEL always falls on the direction of flow because of loss of head. The
HGL may rise or falls depending on the pressure variation in the pipe.
• The hydraulic gradient line is NOT always parallel to the centre line of the
pipe.
• The purpose of air vessel in siphon is to regulate the fluid flow or to avoid
interruptions of flow.
• Magnitude of the water hammer depends upon elastic properties of pipe
material, fluid, velocity at which the valve is closed, and the length of the
pipes.
• Pressure rise due to hammer blow is directly proportional to (density of
fluid)1/2
• According to Chezy, discharge through an open channel = AC 𝑚𝑖 where A is
ℎ𝑓
area of flow, m = HMD , i =
𝑙
Two pairs of questions

• The hydraulic gradient line lies over the centre line of the pipe by an amount
equal to the pressure head. SAY WHAT???
• The total energy line lies over the center line of the pipe by an amount equal
to the pressure head and velocity head. SAY WHAT???
• Explanation - It may be due to the pre-set condition that centre line of the pipe
represent potential head.
Pipe flow
• Efficiency of transmission =
𝐻 −ℎ𝑓
𝐻
• Power transmitted through the pipe = w × Q × (𝐻 − ℎ𝑓)
• Power transmitted will be maximum when head lost due to the friction is equal to
1/3rd of the total supply head.
• Maximum efficiency of the transmission is 67%.
• For compounding two or more pipes, frictional head loss (f) and discharge (Q) is
considered equal. (@FaQ is constant )
• In series flow, total head loss is equal to the sum of individual head loss and the
discharge is same.
• In parallel flow, total discharge is equal to sum of individual discharge.
• 𝑙
𝑑5
= σ𝑛𝑖
𝑙𝑖
𝑑5𝑖
• The siphon will work satisfactorily if the minimum pressure in the pipe is more than
vapor pressure of the fluid. (@Min > Vap)
• According to Manning, discharge through an open channel = A×M×i1/2×m2/3
• The flow in a channel is said to be uniform flow. When the flow is varied
gradually, the flow becomes steady, non uniform flow.
• The pressure at the stagnation point is high.
• A sinusoidal wave, of small surface-elevation amplitude and with a constant
wavelength, propagates with the phase velocity, also called celerity or phase
speed.
• Venturiflume is used in flow measurement of very large flow rates, usually
given in millions of cubic units.
• The total pressure on the top of a closed cylindrical vessel. So, total pressure
= Pressure * Area. and hence Total pressure is proportional to r^4. completely
filled up with a liquid is directly proportional to (radius)4
Most economical section
The reciprocal of Euler’s number is Newton’s number.
According to Prandtl-Blassius relation, the boundary
0.377𝑥
layer thickness in turbulent
5𝑥
flow = / , whereas the boundary layer thickness in laminar flow =
1 5
𝑅𝑥 𝑅𝑥
When a tank containing liquid moves with an acceleration in the horizontal
direction, then the free surface of the liquid falls in the front end.
The velocity when flow changes from laminar to turbulent is critical velocity.
Some examples of Newtonian fluids include water, organic solvents, and honey. For
those fluids viscosity is only dependent on temperature. (i.e. viscosity is independent
of the rate of shear).
An exception to the rule is Bingham plastics, which are fluids that require a
minimum stress to be applied before they flow. These are strictly non-Newtonian,
but once the flow starts they behave essentially as Newtonian fluids (i.e. shear stress
is linear with shear rate). A great example of this kind of behaviour is mayonnaise.
A fluid is shear thickening if the viscosity of the fluid increases as the shear rate
increases.
Fluids are shear thinning if the viscosity decreases as the shear rate increases. Shear
thinning fluids, also known as pseudo-plastics, are ubiquitous in industrial and
biological processes. Common examples include ketchup, paints and blood.
MCQ

1. Which one is in a state of failure?

a) Solid
b) Liquid
c) Gas
d) Fluid
• When a cylindrical vessel of radius (r) containing liquid is revolved about its
𝑤2𝑟2
vertical axis ω rad/s, then depth of parabola which the liquid assumes is
2𝑔
as the depth 2of2 parabola is due to velocity head of liquid i.e., V2/2g.and v= rw
𝑤𝑟
so depth = .
2𝑔