Civil Engineering uses of rocks

 asinsitu foundation sites

As building stones
As aggregates for road metal and cement
concrete.
Rock properties tend to vary widely, often over short distances

Engineering Properties of Rocks = Rock Mechanics,

It is a subdivision of “Geomechanics” which is concerned with the

mechanical responses of all geological materials, including soils

rock will be used either as:

• Building material so the structure will be made of

rock, or

• A structure will be built on the rock, or

• A structure will be built in the rock

Rock Material
 The term “ Rock Material” refers to the intact rock within
the framework of discontinuities.
 This is the smallest element of rock block not cut the
rock by any fractures.
 There are always some micro fractures in the rock
material but these should not be treated as fractures.
 ‘Rock material’ differs from ‘rock mass’ which refers to
insitu rock together with its discontinuities and
weathering profile.
Figure : Description of intact rock and rock mass
Figure : A typical view of rockmass encountered in the field
the rock type, the rock structure, any alteration to the rock,
the in situ stress state and Hydro-geological regime will be
important for all engineering.
During Engineering planning, design and construction of works,
there are many rock mechanics issues such as:
• Evaluation of geological hazards;
• Selection and preparation of rock materials;
• Evaluation of cutability and drillability of rock;
• Analysis of rock deformations;
• Analysis of rock stability;
• Control of blasting procedures;
• Design of support systems;
• Hydraulic fracturing, and
• Selection of types of structures
Factors affecting Rock Properties:

Texture influences the rock strength directly through the

degree of interlocking of the component grains.

Rock defects such as microfractures, grain boundaries,

mineral cleavages, and planar discontinuities influence the
ultimate rock strength and may act as “surfaces of
weakness” where failure occurs.

When cleavage has high or low angles with the principal

stress direction, the mode of failure is mainly influenced by
the cleavage.
Anisotropy is common because of preferred orientations of
minerals and directional stress history.

Rocks are seldom continuous owing to pores and

fissures (i.e. Sedimentary rocks).
 Temperature and Pressure
 All rock types undergo a decrease in strength with
increasing temperature, and an increase in strength with
increasing confining pressure. At high confining pressures,
rocks are more difficult to fracture

 Pore Solutions

 The presence of moisture in rocks adversely affects their

engineering strength. Reduction in strength with increasing
H2O content is due to lowering of the tensile strength,
which is a function of the molecular cohesive strength of
the material.
PHYSICO-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

 The performance of rock mostly depends on their physico-

mechanical characteristics.
 physical properties (or the index properties) helps in
classifying the rock.
 The mechanical properties and the strength properties and tells
about the performance of the rock material when subjected to
a particular loading system.
Since there are vast ranges in the properties of rocks, Engineers
rely on a number of basic measurements to describe rocks
quantitatively. These are known as Index Properties.

Index Properties of Rocks:

– Porosity- Identifies the relative proportions of solids &
voids;
– Density- a mineralogical constituents parameter;
– Sonic Velocity- evaluates the degree of fissuring;
– Permeability- the relative interconnection of pores;
– Durability- tendency for eventual breakdown of
components or structures with degradation of rock quality,
– Strength- existing competency of the rock fabric
binding components.
Engineering properties of rocks
 For foundation sites rocks must be very strong to withstand
heavy foundation load, so strength is very important
 compressive strength
Tensile strength

Shear strength

Elasticity

are important for the site rocks

 When rocks are used as building stones or facework or statue making, then
 colour
 Appearnce

 Workability

 Ability to take polish

are important properties (strength is not important as the rocks

are not supposed to bear any heavy loads)
 Resistance to abrasion is important when stones are used for
flooring purposes
 Durability (resistance to weathering) becomes important for
roofing stones or tiles.
 Good binding and hydrophobic properties for rocks used as
road aggregates.
 Absence of reaction with cement for cement aggregates.

 Softness for carving

 Lightness for stones used in arches

etc
For use as Foundation sites For use as For use as
Building stones Aggregates (for road
as well as for cement
concrete)
Field test for Lab tests for Lab tests performed for Determining
computing computing
1.Deformability 1. 4.Uniaxial 1. Durability 1. Hardness
Modulus (E) unconfined i. Attrition
compressive strength ii. abrasion
2.Shear strength Triaxial compressive 2. Absorption 2. Toughness
strength
3.Bearing capacity 3. Tensile strength 3. Crushing strength 3. Crushing strength

4.Uniaxial unconfined 4. Shear strength 4.Transverse strength 4. Hydrophobic

compressive strength properties

5.Tensile strength 5. Modulus of 5. Abrasion resistance 5. Reactivness with

elastiicty (E) cement
6. Frost resistance 6. Binding properties
7. Lightness (Density)

Table: Tests for properties of rocks for civil engineering uses.

A. Insitu Testing of Rocks (Field Tests)
1. Deformability Field Test:
 Performed to obtain deformation parameters of rock mass.
 Helps in determining the permissible loading intensity on
the rock mass and on its surrounding.
 Modulus of elasticity or modulus of deformation (E) of the
rock is computed through this test.
 The modulus of deformation (E) indicates the deformation
under loading.
 The value of E is required in design of various civil
engineering structures, specially of arch dams and pressure
tunnels.
Stress (σ) = P/A P
Strain (ε ) = ΔL/L A

 L

 The modulus of deformation (E) is determined

according to Hook’s law, which states that, in elastic
substances, the stress is directly proportional to the
strain.
σ = Compressive strength
E = σ/ ε = ε = axial strain mm/mm
or %
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
 In case of deformation due to applying stress on a rock body, the
body returns to its original shape if the stress is removed ---
Elasticity ( here stress is proportional to strain)
 Strained elastic energy that deformed the rock is recoverable.
 At elastic limit, the magnitude of strain exceed the magnitude of
stress permanently.
 When strain cross elastic limit of the rock, plastic flow occur.
 Brittle rock – deformed by fracture
- plastic flow smaller in extent
Ductile rock – deformed without fracture
plastic flow large in extent
At low temp. and pressure - rocks behave brittle
At high temp. and pressure = rocks behave ductile.
Fig: stress and strain
(a) Elastic and ductile deformation. X- rupture, Y- yield point
(b) Stress – strain relation of Granite at different temperature.
Deformation and Failure of Rocks:
Four stages of deformation recognized:
• Elastic;

• Elastico-viscous;

• Plastic, and

• Rupture.

 All are dependent on the elasticity, viscosity and rigidity of the

rock, as well as temperature, time, pore water, anisotropy and
stress history.
– Elastic deformation: Strain is a linear function of stress thus
obeying Hooke’s law, and the constant relationship between them
is referred to as Young’s modulus (E).
– Rocks are non ideal solids and exhibit hysteresis during
unloading.
– hysteresis the phenomenon in which the value of a physical property
lags behind changes in the effect causing it, as for instance when
magnetic induction lags behind the magnetizing force.
– The elastic limit, where elastic deformation changes to plastic
deformation is termed the Yield Point. Further stress induces
plastic flow and the rock is permanently strained.
– The first part of the plastic flow domain preserves significant
elastic stress and is known as the “elastico-viscous” region.
This is the field of“creep”deformation.
– Solids are termed “brittle”or “ductile” depending on the
amount of plastic deformation they exhibit. Brittle materials
display no plastic deformation.
– The point where the applied stress exceeds the strength of the
material is the “ultimate strength” and “rupture” results.
– Young’s modulus “(E)” is the most important elastic constant
derived from the slope of the stress-strain curve.
Most crystalline rocks have S-shaped stress-strain curves
that display “hysteresis” on unloading.
• The stress strain behavior of a natural rock like sandstone
is a combination of its mineralogical components, in this
case: quartz and calcite
 Chalk: low stiffness,
low strength, quite Rock salt: low
brittle stiffness, low strength,
Ductile

Stress- strain Diagrams

 a high grain strength, fine
grain basalt has a high
stiffness, high strength and
is very brittle.

limestone rock with a

variation in the grain
geometry has a medium
stiffness, medium strength
and a more gentle
descending part of the
curve caused by the gradual
deterioration of the
microstructure as it is
progressively and
increasingly damaged
The deformability test is usually performed on rock masses by the
following two techniques:

1. Static testing
2. Dynamic testing
In static test, loads in increasing order are applied on the rock
surface and the corresponding deformations (strains) caused by the
static loads are noted and used to plot the deformation
characteristics curve of the rock mass.
In the dynamic test the rock mass is made to vibrate under artificial
shock waves, so that force as well as its reaction are dynamic
nature.
The velocity propagation of artificial elastic shock waves are
measured to evaluate the rock deformability.
A) Static deformability field tests
(i) Plate load test or jack test
(ii) bore hole test
(i) Plate load test or jack test:
In this test, normal successively increasing static load is applied to
an exposed flat surface of the rock mass by means of a hydraulic
jack.
Resulting displacements of the rock surface are measured by strain
gauges.
The deformation modulus (E) can be calculated as E =
Where δ = average surface displacement of the rock surface
m= displacement coefficient, depending upon the type and size of loading
plate (Table)
Q = total normal surface load
A = area of the loading plate through which the load Q is applied
μ = Poisson's ratio
Table: Typical values of displacement Coefficient (m)
Shape of loading plate Side ratio L/B m value
Circular ---- 0.96
Square 1:1 0.95
Rectangular 1:2 0.92
1:5 0.82
1:10 0.71
Fig:Plate load test or Jack test
Fig: Schematic diagram of plate load test showing test set-up
 An underground test gallery is first excavated in the rock mass in
the form of a tunnel.
 The base width of the gallery is at least 4 times the dimension of
the test plate which may be square, circular or rectangular.
 The length of the gallery is such that 4to 5 tests can be performed.
 Hydraulic jack to apply load is placed over the bearing plate on the
bottom of the trench.
 Load is applied uniformly on the rock area.
 The loading plate may be mild steel, 3 to 4 cm thick or may be of
RCC.
 Thickness of the loading pad depends upon the loading area.
 At the top where the jack takes a reaction, a loading pad and a
suitable packing is provided.
 At the bottom, on the surface of the loading pad dial gauges
(preferably three) are mounted to measure the deflections.
 Average of three are taken.
 Load is applied at least twice the expected pressure likely
to be developed by the structure to be constructed.
 The max. test load is applied in stages in increasing orders
as 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%.
 Similar stages is to be adopted while unloading the
applied load.
 The max. load at the time of loading and zero load at the
time of unloading is maintained for sufficient time, till the
deformation rate at the centre becomes less than 0.025
mm/hr.
 Creep of rock at the max. test pressure should be
measured by keeping the pressure constant for 2-3 days.
 3 to 4 tests are usually performed at each site with varying
size of loading plate.
Fig: Typical loading and unloading curves of a plate load test
(ii) Bore Hole Test:
 The instrument used to perform the test in the bore hole is
known as dilatometer or deformeter.
 It consists of a shell which can be lowered into the bore hole
to at any depth.
 It is filled with oil and pressure can be applied to the oil from
the ground surface.
 Due to pressure on the oil the shell expands laterally and
pushes the wall of the bore hole, thereby imparting pressure.
 The deformation of the rock wall is measured with the help
of transducer.
 The plotting of the applied stress and the observed strain
curve will help in evaluating E
E= Stress/Strain
 The value of E can be calculated from the change of diameter
of the bore hole.
 If the diametrical change is ∆D the value of E is given by

E=

Where p= intensity of pressure applied to the dilatometer.

μ = Poisson's ratio
∆D = diametrical deformation of the bore hole in the
region of applied pressure.
 a number of such tests can be performed to determine the
distribution of deformability with the rock depth.
 Menard’s Pressuremeter Tests
 Uniaxial (Borehole) Jacking Test
Pressuremeter Tests:
A pressuremeter is a field test to measure the “at-rest
horizontal earth pressure” and soil/soft rock modulus.
 Louis Menard from France in 1955 was the first brought the
pressuremeter to the forefront.
This test is very useful for many geotechnical applications
namely,
 Bearing capacity of shallow and deep foundations
 Settlement of all types of foundations
 Deformation of laterally loaded piles and sheet piles
 Resistance of anchors
 Pressuremeter test is performed by applying pressure to the
sidewalls of the borehole.
 It consists of two units, one readout unit that rests on the ground
surface and a probe that is inserted into the borehole.
 Once the probe is at the test depth, the guard cells are inflated
to brace the probe in place.
 Then the measuring cell is pressurized with water, inflating its
flexible rubber bladder, which exerts a pressure on the borehole
wall.
 As the pressure in the measuring cell increases, the borehole
walls deform.
 The pressure within the measuring cell is held constant for
approximately 60 seconds and the increase in volume required
to maintain the constant pressure is recorded.
 The pressuremeter modulus, Ep, of the soil is determined with
the use of the theory of expansion of an infinitely thick cylinder.
 Thus,

 Where,

 µs= Poisson’s ratio (which may be assumed to be 0.33).

 Uniaxial Jacking Test:
 The test is conducted in drift in two directions (horizontal and
vertical).
 Load is applied on rigid plate in increments and displacement of
plate and rock mass below the plate is measured with multiple
positions of borehole extensometers (MPBX) in reference to a
base anchor.
 The observed displacements at various depths and corresponding
to the order of stress, values for modulus have been estimated.
 The test methodology suggested by IS: 7317-1993 will be
followed for determination of modulus of deformation and
elasticity
 Equipment & test set up:-
 The following are main equipments used for Rigid Plate
Loading Method
a. Test site preparation equipment: This will include
excavation tools, such as drills and chipping hammers.
b. Deformation Measuring Instrument: Hydraulic clamping
multiple point borehole extensometers and measuring
equipment

c. Loading Equipment: Hydraulic Jacks of applying load up to

150 tonnes and maintaining within 3% of desired pressure
with calibrated load gauge.
 Installation and testing:-
 The test surface need to be prepared carefully such that causing
minimal damage to the finished rock surface and loose rock
removed from test surface.
 Concrete pad of loading plate size has to be prepared to get firm
contact in between plate and rock.
 At center of test surface drillhole of NX-76 mm required to be
drilled and MPBX at different depths has to be installed.
 The test need to be carried out after allowing sufficient time for
setting of cement mortar provided between the steel plates and
prepared rock faces.
 The rigid plate has to be loaded in minimum of six increment-
decrement cycles and corresponding deformation is recorded.
 Data observed during the test is entered in standard data sheet
for estimation of modulus
B. Dynamic field test for determining modulus of deformity (E):
 The dynamic elastic constants of a solid material can be determined
by measuring the propagation velocities of the material.
 For an isotropic solid, there are two types of body or free‐medium
waves:
‐a longitudinal or compression wave which travels with velocity Vp
‐a shear or transverse wave which travels with velocity Vs
 These velocities are related to the elastic constants by

E = Modulus of elasticity, G = Modulus of rigidity (or Shear

modulus) ν= Poisson’s ratio , g = gravitational acceleration, γ= Unit
weight of the material
 G can be determined from the shear wave velocity, Vs ,without
the knowledge of the Poisson’s ratio, ν.
 However the determination of the Elastic modulus E requires
the value of ν.
 Based on the relationship:
 Both the E and ν can be determined by the following equation:

Also from the relationship

The bulk modulus K can be determined

If ᵞ in g/cm3, and vp in km/s, then E in GPa (10 N/m2).

2. Field Shear Test:
 For designing the foundations on rocks, the information about the
shear strength of the rock mass is necessary, because this will give
an idea about the overall stability .
 Determination of
i) cohesion ( c)
ii) angle of internal friction (φ)
= c+σ’tanφ
where = shear strength of rock
c = cohesion
σ’ = normal (effective ) stress created by loading.

= σ – u; where σ is total stress and u is pore water

pressure
Cohesion is related to grain to grain attraction.
Angle of internal friction describes the frictional resistance
between grain to grain.
 In this test, peak & residual direct shear strength are
measured as a function of stress normal to the sheared plane.
 Various equipments required for the test,
 equipment for cutting & encapsulating the test block
- rock saws, drills, hammer & chisels,
 formwork of appropriate dimensions & rigidity,
 expanded polystyrene sheeting & steel shear box (700 x 700 x
350 mm),
 hydraulic jacks for applying normal load,
 hydraulic jacks for applying the shear force
 equipment for measuring the applied forces,
 pumps and pressure gages and
 equipment for measuring shear, normal & lateral
displacements.
Fig: Direct shear test on rocks
The method uses two jacks
 One in vertical direction for applying compressive normal load
(Q)
 One in horizontal direction for applying shearing force (P)
 The normal load (Q) is applied first through the vertical jack to
dissipate the pore water pressure of the rock.
 Load is applied gradually and resulting deformations are noted.
 When the rate of change of normal displacement becomes less than
0.05mm in 10 minutes, consolidation is assumed to be completed
and pore pressure dissipated.
 Then shear load (P) is applied gradually through the horizontal
jack till failure.
 The shear load is gradually increased as to keep the strain limited
to about 1mm in 10 minutes and can be increased to 5mm per 10
minutes, when the peak strength is nearing.
 The shear strength( ) of the rock is given by
=
where P is the peak horizontal(Shear) load at failure
A′ is the area of the vertical plate through which
P is applied (x-sectional area of the loaded surface).
The normal stress (σ) is given by
σ=
where Q is the peak vertical load applied (kept
constant during shearing)
A is the x-sectional area of the horizontal plate
through which the vertical load (Q) is .
 For determining shear strength parameters (c and φ), the test is
performed on a number of test blocks with different Q values as
to obtain different P values for the shear failure.
 Set of values of τ and σ are obtained and plotted to obtain
shear strength envelop line of the rock.
 c values (as the intercept of the envelop line on Y-axis) and φ
value (the inclination of line with horizontal) are computed.
3. In situ uniaxial (unconfined) compressive strength test:
When rock masses are used as columns to support the roof in
case of
- underground power house
- coal mines
It becomes necessary to evaluate the compressive strength of
rock as column in the field
The compressive strength of a rock in such a situation of
unidirectional vertical load without any confining load
transfer on horizontal axis is known as uniaxial (or
unconfined) compressive strength.
Sufficient number of planes of weakness should be included
in the test pillar
 The shape of the test pillar may be either circular, square or
rectangular one.
 The size of the pillar in plan is from 0.4mx0.4m to
0.2mx0.2m.
 For uniform distribution of load, a pad of flexible material is
provided at the top of the specimen pillar.
 The vertical load is applied over the pillar through a set of
hydraulic jacks.
 Reaction surface at the top should be sufficiently strong.
 Vertical displacements are measured by dial gauge.
 The load is applied progressively up to the failure value.
 The compressive strength is evaluated as

=
Fig: Filed test for compressive strength (Uniaxial Strength)
4. Insitu tensile strength test:
 Due to practical difficulties, not possible to measure the
tensile strength of insitu rocks in the field.
 Indirect method developed in Russia known as pull test.
 Drilling a horizontal hole in the rock mass up to a depth of
about 15 to 20 cm from the face of the rock.
 At the end of the hole diameter of the hole is increased (fig)
 A hydraulic mechanism which grip the rock in the enlarged
region is inserted and finally, pull is applied from the face.
 Alternately a bolt with flexible enlarged head is put into the
hole and gripping it properly.
 The pull is applied to take out the bolt.
 Due to the pull, the rock breaks in the form of a cone of
radius (say, R)
 The tensile strength( )

 =
where, P= pulling force at failure
H = height of the cone extracted
R = radius of the fractured cone containing the
bolt
  LABORATORY TESTING OF ROCKS FOR
DETERMINING THEIR STABILITY AS FOUNDATION
SITES
 Test performed in the laboratory on the representative
cylindrical core samples of rocks are
 Uniaxial confined compressive strength test
 Triaxial compressive strength test

 Tensile strength test

 Shear strength test

 Modulus of elasticity test

(a) Uniaxial Compression Strength Test
 Specimens of right circular cylinders having a length
(height) to diameter ratio of 2 or higher are prepared by
cutting and grinding.
 Two axial and one circumferential deformation
measurement devices (LVDTs) are attached to each of the
specimen.
 The specimen is then compressed under a stiff compression
machine with a spherical seating.
 The axial stress (vertical compressive load) is applied with a
constant strain rate around 1 μm/s such that failure occurs
within 5-10 minutes of loading.
 The load is measured by a load transducer.
 Load, two axial deformations and one circumferential
deformation measurements are recorded at every 25 KN interval
until failure.
 Uniaxial compressive strength, Young's modules (at 50% of
failure stress) and Poisson's ratio (at 50% of failure stress) can be
calculated from the failure load, stress and strain relationship.
 Uniaxial compressive strength, σc, is calculated as the failure
load divided by the initial cross sectional area of the specimen.
 Axial tangential Young's modulus at 50% of uniaxial
compressive strength, Et50% is calculated as the slope of tangent
line of axial stress - axial strain curve at a stress level equals to
50% of the ultimate uniaxial compressive strength.
Uniaxial Compressive Strength-
Unconfined
Fig: Uniaxial Compressive Strength testing of rock samples in the laboratory
 One important factor which governs the compressive strength is the
condition of both the ends of the specimen.
 If the friction between the loading plate and the rock sample is more
(rough surface), then the sample will fail in shear.
 In case of smooth contact between the loading plate and sample, the
sample will fail in tension.

a) rough contact b) smooth contact

shear failure tension failure
 The porosity and water content of a rock largely governs its
compressive strength.
 Strength decreases with increase in porosity.
 Water present in the rock will reduce the magnitude of
internal friction of the rock, so reducing its strength.
 The ratio of dry to wet strength of rock is known as its
softening factor and value is found to be nearer to 3.
 Wet sample has its strength one third of a dry sample.
b) Triaxial Compressive Strength Test :
 Triaxial testing on the cylindrical rock specimens are conducted
by applying confining pressure to a desired value and axially
loading the specimen in the compression testing machine till
failure.
 The axial load and the confining pressure are increased
simultaneously and in such a way that to maintain a hydrostatic
condition until the predetermined test level for the confining
pressure is reached.
 Subsequently the confining pressure has to be maintained in the
predetermined level till failure occurs with axial loading.
 Three minimum test need to be conducted at three different
confining pressure levels to get the three different failure loads but
testing on five specimens are preferred at 5 different levels of
confining pressure and gives more reliable results (IS 13047).
 The triaxial test carried can be used to determine the shear
strength parameters of discontinuity in the rock specimen
with effect of confining pressure.
 The rock specimens for conducting this test are prepared as
per IS specifications.
 Generally by Hoek cell apparatus the triaxial test is carried
for rock specimen.
 The confining pressure is applied by means of hydraulic
pump or some other systems and maintained through the oil,
filled in the cell.
 The axial load is applied to the specimen at a constant rate of
deformation or loading in a loading machine.
 This test provides individual points on the failure (peak
strength) envelope from several tests.
 At least three specimen tests under different confining pressures
are conducted such that it adequately defines the strength envelope
over the required range of confining pressures.
 From this the value of the internal friction angle ϕ and the
apparent cohesion 'c' may be obtained.

Figure shows the idealistic

stress-strain characteristic
of rock with increasing
confining pressure. As can
be seen, with the increase in
confining pressure the peak
failure stress also increases
the axial stress (i.e. the peak failure stress) increases as confining
pressure increases.
At failure, the value of axial stress ( ) along with the value of
confining pressure ( ) would enable us to draw a Mohr envelops
(Mohr’s failure circle) .
The cohesion and friction values of the rock material is determined
from the best fit line as shown in Figure. The best fit line is basically
the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope.
c) Tensile Strength Test:
 The tensile strength generally defined as the maximum stress
a specimen can withstand when it is subjected to pulling or
stretching.
 This test influenced by loading along the plane of weakness
or across it in specimen.
 There are several methods used for determination of tensile
strength of rocks by indirect tests, out of that Brazilian test is
generally adopted.
 Usually Brazilian test is conducted on specimen with length
equal to the diameter.
 The test specimen shall be wrapped around its periphery
such that curved platens load the specimen diametrically
with axes of rotation for specimen coincident
 Load on the specimen shall be applied continuously at a constant
rate such that weakest rocks occur within 15-30seconds.
 Normally ten numbers of specimens are recommended for
practical consideration.
 Tensile strength of rock shall be calculated load at failure divided
by circumferential area
 Tensile strength of the rock specimen is then calculated from the
formula,

 where, = Brazilian tensile strength of the rock specimen

P = Peak failure load of the specimen
D = Diameter of the specimen
t = Thickness of the specimen
 d) Point Load Index
 This test is intended primarily as a simple and practical one for
field classification of rock materials.
 Both irregular as well as regular samples including cylindrical
cores can be tested using the method.
 Procedure helps to determine the diametrical and axial point load
strength index of rock cores, cut blocks or irregular lumps, which
may be tested without any treatment.
 In the test, load is applied to the specimen through conical indents
fitted with hydraulic jacks.
 Test can be conducted on the core specimens which are
completely dry or after soaking it for 2 days.
 The total length (l) and diameter (d) of the core specimen is
measured and specimen of l/d=1.5, are considered to be suitable
for this test.
 The specimen placed horizontally between two platens in
such a way that the distance between the contact point and the
nearest free end (L) is at least 0.75times the diameter of the
core (d).
 The distance between two platen contact points (D) with the
help of the scale attached with the loading frame is measured.
 In case of diametrical test, the diameter of the core (d) and
the distance between two platens (D) will be same.
 Load to the core specimen is applied such that failure occur
within 10-60 sec. record the failure load ‘P‘.
 Rock sample is fail under tension developed cracks parallel
to the loading direction.
 In general point load tests are conducted in the following
four possible sample type.

Fig: Point load test (a): instrument; (b) sample types

 D=L
 Block type
(d)
 Point load index (Is) can be calculated by the following
relation

Is = kg/cm2
P= Failure load
D= Distance between two points.

UCS is computed as follows

Ic = (14+ 0.175D) x Is
 The relation is rock type and sample size dependant

Relation between UCS and Is(50) for Group A Rocks

e) REBOUND HAMMER TEST (SCHMIDT REBOUND HAMMER)

 Spring loaded steel hammer

 It is used to measure the approximate value of unconfined
compressive strength of rock specimen and also to assess the
uniformity character (modulus of elasticity)of rock and is
indicate in a scale as rebound number.
 The plunger housing with a hammer is firmly compressed
against a rock surface and the spring- loaded hammer gets
released automatically and rebound after giving an impact of
energy.
 The amount of energy can be read out from the scale given in
the graph card of the rebound hammer.
 Energy impact of 0.075 m-kg is satisfactory.
Fig: Schmidt Rebound Hammer
 The principle – the measured rebound of a steel hammer
mass when propelled with 0-075 kg-m of energy against a
rock surface will be proportional to the hardness of materials,
which may be correlated, in turn, with strength.
 UCS can be estimated by multiplying the SHV (Schmidt
Hammer Value) by the dry unit weight of the specimen.
log UCS = 1.831 log SHV+ 1.533 (Aufmuth)
UCS = 7.752 SHV – 213.349 (Irfan and Dearman)
Fig: Rock strength prediction chart for Schmidt Hammer data
f) Direct Shear Test
 The shear resistance of rock is a result of friction and interlocking
of particles, and possibly cementation or bonding at particle
contacts.
 Due to interlocking, particulate material may expand or contract in
volume as it is subject to shear strains.
 Due to shearing rock may expands its volume, the density of
particles will decrease and the strength will decrease.
 So the peak strength would be followed by a reduction of shear
stress.
 The volume change behavior and inter particle friction depend on
the density of the particles, the inter granular contact forces, and to
a somewhat lesser extent, other factors such as the rate of shearing
and the direction of the shear stress.
 The average normal inter granular contact force per unit area is
called the effective stress.
 If water is not allowed to flow in or out of the rock mass, the stress
path is called an undrained stress path.
 On the other hand, if the fluids are allowed to freely drain out of the
pores, then the pore pressures will remain constant and the test path
is called a drained stress path.
 The rock mass is free to dilate or contract during shear if it is
drained.
 The shear strength of rock depends on the normal/effective stress,
the drainage conditions, the density of the particles, the rate of strain
and the direction of the strain.

Figure : Shear stress vs shear strain plot with increasing normal
load
f) Modulus of Elasticity Test:
Give rough value of E which is higher than the insitu
values.
The Laboratory test involves testing of cylindrical rock
sample of L/D = 2 under uniaxial compression.
The deformation (change in length) of the sample parallel
to the stress direction (∆L) is determined at the application
of each increase of load using strain gauges.
The process of loading and determining the strain (∆L/L)
is continued till the specimen break.
The stress-strain values, corresponding to different loads
are plotted to obtain a curve showing the elastic
behaviour of the rock.
 The slope of line drawn from the point of origin or zero load
as a tangent of this curve is called the modulus of elasticity
(E).
 Based on their modulus of elasticity , the rocks are usually
grouped as quasi-elastic, semi- elastic and non- elastic rocks.
 In quasi-elastic rocks, the stress-strain relationship is almost
a straight line till the point of failure.
 These are massive, dense and non-foliated rocks of igneous
and metamorphic origin, like Granites, Gabbros, Dolerites,
Basalts, Quartzites etc.
 Such rocks have E values ranging from 6x to 11x
 In semi-elastic rocks, the stress-strain curves is such that its
slope tends to decrease with increasing load.
 They are generally coarse grained, somewhat porous and
possess minor structural discontinuities.
 Coarse grained granites, Dolomites, Sandstones etc are the
common examples.
 The E values of such rocks may usually vary in the rang
from 4x to 6x
 In n on-elastic rocks, the stress-strain curve tends to break
into an initial zone to a steep slope followed by a curve of
the least slope.
 These are porous and coarse grained rocks having E value
less than 4x