Methods Study

Methods Study
Course Code: IEE2
Instructor: Engr. Cesar Amante Ting

Included in this material are citations from the book Motion
and Time Study for Lean Environment by Fred Meyers.
MOTION & TIME STUDY FOR
THE LEAN ENVIRONMENT
THE NATURE OF THE LEAN ENVIRONMENT:
• The term lean production environment was coined by James

Womack to differentiate the practices he observed in Japan at
Toyota from the practices of mass production.
• It focuses on eliminating all forms of waste in processes and has
several objectives that are in direct opposition to mass
production orthodoxy.
• The nature of the lean environment demands a leadership
approach that implements search for leanness throughout the
organization.
• Vision, culture and strategy are integrated into customer service
with high quality, low cost and short delivery.
• It involves entire workforce and utilizes concepts from methods
and time study, and quality and process control.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF LEAN ENVIRONMENT:
• The lean environment requires an aggressive attack on waste,

called muda in Japanese.
• There are muda everywhere: the material that is waiting to be
processed, the labor waiting for tools, the raw materials that
were not inspected and may be defective and even forms that
requires extra clerical efforts are muda.
• Lean thinking is the antidotal approach promoted by Womack
and the exponents of lean manufacturing systems. It includes:
1. Specifying value as action steps.

2. Sequencing value-created actions.
3. Interruption-proof sequences.
4. Demand rather than supply sequences.
5. Ever more effective performance through learning.
ANALYSIS & IMPROVEMENT OF SYSTEMS:
• Shigeo Shingo, a Japanese Industrial Engineer, conceptualize

that a change-responsive manufacturing system can be
designed and that traditional tools of industrial engineering can
be used to evaluate and aggressively improve the lean
environment.
• He also recognized and emphasized that process and operations
analyses are important candidates for improvement and learning
and also has potential for labor and cost savings.
• Note that: Process is a continuous flow by which raw materials
are converted into finished goods. Operation is any action
performed by man, machine or equipment on raw materials or
intermediate or finished products.
• Push versus Pull Production System/Scheduling:
1. Push Production System – production was being
scheduled even no order was placed. It is usually done to
buffer inventory to anticipate sudden and variability in
demands.
ANALYSIS & IMPROVEMENT OF SYSTEMS:
• Push versus Pull Production System/Scheduling:

2. Pull Production System – production was being
scheduled only when order was placed. It is the primary
strategy in lean manufacturing/environment.
• Lean manufacturing has the principle to eliminate delays,
overproduction, waiting, not utilizing staff talent, travel,
inventory, motion, excess processing (acronym: DOWNTIME).
HISTORY & KEY
CONTRIBUTORS OF MOTION
& TIME STUDY
HISTORY & KEY CONTRIBUTORS OF MOTION & TIME STUDY:
• Labor has always been a major factor in the cost of the product.
As labor productivity improves, costs go down, wages go up, and
profits go up.
• Motion and time study techniques give management the tools to
measure and improve productivity.
• Key Contributors:
• 1. Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915) – he is known as the father
of scientific management and industrial engineering. He is the
first person to use stopwatch to study work content and, as
such, is called the father of time study.
• He accomplished 4 Principles of Scientific Management:
1. Develop a science for each element of a person’s work,
thereby replacing the old rule-of-thumb methods.
2. Select the best worker for each task and train that
worker in a prescribed method developed in 1st principle.
3. Develop a spirit of cooperation between management and
labor in carrying out the prescribed methods.
4. Divide the work into almost equal shares between
management and labor, each doing what they do best.
• Before Taylor, the workforce developed its own methods through

trial and error. The workforce was responsible for seeing that
everything was available to do the job, such as laborers bringing
their own tools to work. Taylor wanted management to reject
opinion for a more exact science. Taylor;
1. Specified the work method,
2. Instructed the operator in that method,
3. Maintained standard condition for performing that
work,
4. Set time standard goals,
5. Paid premiums for doing the task as specified.
• Taylor is also responsible for the following innovations:

1. Stopwatch time study
2. High-speed steel tools
3. Tool grinders
4. Slide rules
5. Functional-type organization
• Taylor’s Shoveling Experiment:
Between 400 to 600 men moved mountains of coal, coke and iron
ore around the two-mile-long yards of Midvale Steel Works. Each man
brought his own shovel from home and was assigned to a gang for moving
materials. Taylor noticed the different sizes of shovels and wondered
which shovel was the most efficient. Taylor talked to the management into
a formal study of this operation. He asked a laborer, known today only as
John, if he would be willing to help him study the coal, coke and iron ore
shoveling job. Taylor told John he would double his salary, and I’ll bet
John answered positively within 10 seconds. Taylor watched John with a
stopwatch and measured everything he did. He varied the shovel size,
duration, number of breaks and work hours. The results were fantastic.
He purchased quantities of three types of shovels – one for coal, one for
coke and one for iron ore. The results of Taylor’s shoveling experiment are
summarized in the table:
• Key Contributors:
• 2. Frank (1868-1924) and Lilian (1878-1972) Gilbreth – they are
known as the parents of motion study. They have developed
many new techniques for studying work.
- Frank Gilbreth started his work life as a bricklayer’s

apprentice. He was immediately aware of motions. He noticed that
when the instructor showed him how to lay bricks the instructor
used one set of motions, another set of motions when he was
working by himself, and a third set of motions when in a hurry.
Frank questioned this practice and went about searching for the one
best method. He set up his own construction business with the
competitive advantage of:
1. Adjustable scaffolding – previously bricklayers built the wall
from their toes to their highest reach, then built some more
scaffolding and started over.
2. Bricklayer’s helpers – at about one half the cost of a
bricklayer. The helper would sort, carry and stack bricks for
the bricklayer.
He set up his own construction business with the competitive
advantage of:
3. Constant mortar mix
4. Improved motion pattern
5. 350 bricks/hour instead of the previous 120 bricks/hour.
- Lilian Gilbreth was a trained psychologist and a people
oriented person. She has also conducted several works in methods
engineering and have authored books.
3. Henry Laurence Gantt (1861-1919) – he invented the task and

bonus system or earned hour plan. Rather than penalizing the less
proficient worker as Taylor did with his multiple piecework plan,
Gantt advocated a livable wage with a sizable bonus for
performance over 100%.
- He also developed a technique (tool) for scheduling work which
is known as the Gantt Chart.
4. Ralph M. Barnes (1900-1984) – he was one of the first and best

known professors of engineering in the field of work measurement.
During his 21 years at the University of Iowa, he attained the rank
of full professor and was influential in the promotion of industrial
engineering.
5. Marvin E. Mundel (1916-1996) – he was a student of Dr. Barnes
and he taught at Purdue from 1942 to 1952. He was a major
contributor to the reconstruction of Japan after World War II. He
also authored books that simplified the description of the various
tools of work measurement and provided numerous examples of
the ways the tools could be used.
6. Shigeo Shingo (1909-1990) – he received an honorary doctoral

degree at Utah State University in 1988 for his contributions to
improving quality and productivity. He also helped his clients
Matsushita and Toyota make tremendous gains during the 1960’s.
7. Professor Elton Mayo – he was known as the father of human

relations movement and have conducted research project to study
what factors affected productivity such as illumination and relay
assembly study.
THE IMPORTANCE & USES OF
MOTION & TIME STUDY
WHAT IS A MOTION STUDY?
• Motion studies are performed to eliminate waste. The efforts and
movements of the human employee are considered valuable.
• If a person spends most of the day doing physical and mental
tasks that do not contribute to the manufacture of product, the
person will be just as tired as the person who only did things
that contribute to manufacture product.
• It is the responsibility of management to ensure that the
employee has appropriate and timely work, that the appropriate
tools and materials are available, and that the employee knows
what is expected.
• Motion studies provide the proper way to consistently make good
product.
• An industrial engineer will use the tools of methods study to
develop new methods, to correct ineffective work habits, to
analyze processes and operations and to develop appropriate
person and machine combinations for production.
• Before any improvement in quality or quantity of output, any
study of operations time, any scheduling of work or balancing of
workload, or any calculation of standard time, a study of the
current and proposed methods is required.
WHAT IS A MOTION STUDY?
• Any process can be studied by dividing it into process activity.
Although each activity is different, depending on the product,
there are five classes of activities that are included in all
processes.
• Savings, often considerable, may be found in the process by
reorganizing activities.
• These activities found in every sequence of process are:
Operation – changes in the properties of the product
Transportation – changes in the location of the product
Inspection – confirmation that change conforms to
specification
Delay – wait for start of operation, transportation or
inspection
Storage – wait until needed
THE IMPORTANCE & USES OF MOTION STUDY:
• Motion study can save a larger percentage of manufacturing cost
than anything else that we can do in a manufacturing plant.
• By changing to a more automatic machine, we can eliminate or
automate many steps in the process.
WHAT IS A TIME STANDARD?

• It is the time required to produce a product at a work station
with the following three conditions:
1. A qualified, well-trained operator
2. Working at a normal pace
3. Doing a specific task
1. A qualified, well-trained operator: Experience is usually what
makes a qualified, well-trained operator, and time on the job is our
best indication of experience. The time required to become qualified
varies with the job and the person. For example, sewing machine
operators, welders, upholsterers, machinists and other high-
technology jobs require long learning periods. The greatest mistake
made by new time study personnel is time-studying someone too
soon. A good rule of thumb is to start with a qualified, fully trained
person and to give that person two weeks prior to the time study.
2. Working at a normal pace: The time standard (or standard
time) of a particular task that should be used should be based on
the normal pace of doing a certain task since we can only use one
time standard across individual differences of workers’
performance.
3. A Specific Task: It is a detailed description of what must be

accomplished. The description of the task must include:
1. The prescribed work method,
2. The material specification,
3. The tools and equipment being used,
4. The positions of incoming and outgoing material,
5. Additional requirements like safety, quality, house
keeping, and maintenance tasks.
Take note that time standard is only good for one set of specific
conditions. If anything changes, the time standard must change.
THE IMPORTANCE & USES OF TIME STUDY:
• Statistically, the importance of time standards can be shown by

the following information.
1. An operation that is not working toward time standards
typically works 60% of the time.
2. An operation that is working toward time standards
performs at 85%. The increase in productivity is 42%
compared to no time standard.
3. An operation that is working with time standards and
agreeable incentive system performs 120%.
• The time standard is one of the most important pieces of
information produced in the manufacturing department.
• It is used to develop answers for the following problems:
1. Determining the number of machine tools to buy.

2. Determining the number of production people to employ.
3. Determining manufacturing costs and selling prices.
4. Scheduling the machines, operations and people to do
the job and deliver on time with less inventory.
THE IMPORTANCE & USES OF TIME STUDY:
5. Determining assembly line balance, determining the

conveyor belt speed, loading the work cells with the correct
amount of work, and balancing the work cells.
6. Determining individual worker performance and
identifying operations that are having problems so the
problems can be corrected.
7. Paying incentive wages for outstanding team or
individual performance.
8. Evaluating cost reduction ideas and picking the most
economical method based on cost analysis, not opinion.
9. Evaluating new equipment purchases to justify their
expense.
10. Developing operation personnel budget to measure
management performance.
EXAMPLE FOR EACH QUESTION/PROBLEM:
1. How many machines do we need?

This is one of the first questions raised when setting up a new
operation or starting production on a new product. The answer
depends on two pieces of information:
a. How many pieces do we need to manufacture per shift?
b. How much time does it take to make one part? (This is
the time standard.)
Example:
1. The marketing department wants us to make 2,000 wagons per
8-hour shift.
2. It takes us 0.4 minute to form the wagon body on a press.
3. There are 480 minutes per shift (8 hours/shift X 60 mins/hour).
4. -50 minutes planned downtime per shift (breaks, clean-up, etc.)
5. There are 430 minutes per shift available @ 100%.
6. At 75% performance (based on history or expectation)
Effective time = 0.75 x 430 mins = 322.5 mins
7. There are 322.5 effective minutes left to produce 2,000 units.
8. 322.5 mins / 2,000 units = 0.161 mins/unit or 6.21 units/min.
EXAMPLE FOR EACH QUESTION/PROBLEM:
• The 0.161 min/unit is called the takt time (defined as the

required plant rate to meet the demand). Every operation in the
plant must produce a part every 0.161 minutes; therefore, how
many machines do we need for this operation?
No. of machines = Time standard / Takt time

= (0.400 min/unit) / (0.161 min/unit)
= 2.48 ≈ 3 machines
2. How many people should we hire?
Given a segment of operations chart,
- the 05 indicates the operations
number,
- the 500 is the pieces per hour
standard which means this operator
should produce 500 pieces per hour.
- the 2.0 is the hours required to
produce 1,000 pieces. At 500 pieces
per hour, it would take us 2 hours
to make 1,000.
• How many hours would be required to work at the rate of 100%
efficiency?
- No. of hours = 2,000 units X 2.0 hours/1,000 units
= 4.0 hours at standard
• Not many people, departments, or plants work at 100%

performance. How many hours would be required if we work at
the rate of 60%, 85% or 120%?
- At 60% efficiency: 4.0 hours / 60% = 6.67 hours
• Therefore, depending on the anticipated performance, we will be

budgeted for a specific number of hours. Either performance
history or national averages would be used to factor the 100%
hours to make them practical and realistic.
- Given the total of 138.94 hours to complete the task in making

water valves at 100% performance and if this is a new product,
we could expect 75% performance during the first year of
production. Therefore,
- 138.94 hours per 1,000 / 75% performance = 185 hours per
1,000 units
• The marketing department has forecasted sales of 2,500 water

valves per day. How many people are needed to make water
valves?
- 185 hours/1,000 X 2.5(1,000) = 463 hours/day needed
- Divide this by 8 hours per employee per day, which is equal to
58 people.
• Management will be judged by how well it performs to this goal.

If less than 2,500 units are produced per day with the 58
people, management will be over budget and it reflects bad
performance. If it produces more than 2,500 units per day,
management is judged as being good at managing, and the
managers are promotable.
3. How much will our product cost?
• At the earliest point in a new product development project, the

anticipated cost must be determined. A feasibility study will show
top management the profitability of a new venture.
• Without proper, accurate cost, the profitability calculations
would be nothing but a guess.
• Product costs consist of:
• Direct labor cost is one of the most difficult component of product
cost to compute. Time standards must be set prior to any
equipment purchase or material availability.
• Example of direct labor cost computation:
3. How do we load and schedule machines, work centers,

departments and plants?
• Even the simplest manufacturing plant must know when to start

an operation for the parts to be available on the assembly line.
• Scheduler can keep adding work to any department for a specific
day until the hour capacity is reached, then it spills over to the
next day.
• Without good time standards, manufacturing management would
have to carry great quantities of inventory to avoid running out of
parts.
4. How do we load and schedule machines, work centers,
departments and plants?
• Inventory is a great cost in manufacturing; therefore, knowledge

of time standards will reduce inventory requirements, which will
reduce cost.
• Production inventory control is an area of major importance in
manufacturing, and time study should be a pre-requisite.
• How could you schedule a plant without time standards?
Anything else is a guess.
5. How do we determine the assembly line and work cell

balance?
• The objective of assembly line balancing and balancing work cells

is to give each operator as close to the same amount of work as
possible, and time standards are needed to measure each work.
6. How do we measure productivity?
• Productivity is a measure of output divided by input. If we are

talking about labor productivity, then we are developing a
number of units of production per hour worked.
• We doubling the output we gain 100% increase in productivity.

We could also increase productivity by maintaining the output
constant and reducing the number of people.
7. How do can we pay our people for outstanding performance?
• Using time standards for determining the target output, we are

able to know the workers that produces above the target and who
will receive an implemented incentive.
• Incentive can be a percentage of the labor cost per output or it
could be free meals, month-end salary bonus, etc.
8. How can we select the best method by evaluating cost

reduction?
• The basic rule of production management is that all expenditures

must be cost justified.
• To justify all expenditures, the savings must be calculated and
these are called returns. The cost of making the change is also
calculated and these are called investments.
• When the return is divided by the investment, the resulting ratio
indicates the desirability of the project. This ratio is called ROI, or
return on investment.
• Frank and Lilian Gilbreth developed the basic philosophy of
predetermined time motion system. They divided work into 17
work elements (called therbligs):
1. Transport empty
2. Search
3. Select
4. Grasp
5. Transport loaded
6. Pre-position
7. Position
8. Assemble
9. Disassemble
10. Release load
11. Use
12. Hold
13. Inspect
14. Avoidable delay
15. Unavoidable delay
16. Plan
17. Rest to overcome fatigue
TECHNIQUES OF METHODS
DESIGN: THE BROAD VIEW –
MACROMETHODS STUDY
TECHNIQUES OF METHOD DESIGN: THE BROAD VIEW –
MACROMETHODS STUDY:
• Motion study is divided into two major categories, macromotion

(or macromethods) and micromotion study.
• Prior to studying individual jobs, an IE should study the overall
flow of a product as it moves through the facility. Understanding
as much as possible about the present condition prepares us to
make improvements on that condition.
• In the case of a product to be manufactured, we take that
product apart and study the manufacturing sequence of each
part and the sequence of assembly of the parts to subassembly,
finished products and packed out.
COST REDUCTION FORMULA:
• It is not a mathematical formula but a formula (or procedure) for

thinking about cost reduction. Before a cost can be reduced, we
need to understand that cost.
COST REDUCTION FORMULA:
• In the cost reduction formula, we ask why, what, when, who,
where and how for each operation, transportation, storage,
inspection or delay performed/happened on every part.
• Once we know how the product is manufactured, we ask each
step by the following questions (in order).
1. Can I eliminate this step?

2. Can I combine this step with another step or steps?
3. Can I re-arrange the steps to make the flow shorter
and/or smoother?
4. Can I simplify the step?
• These four questions must be asked in this order because the

elimination step can save the most, while the simplifying step will
produce the smallest percentage of savings. For example, why try
to simplify a step that can be eliminated?
• The cost reduction formula could be applied to any operation,
transportation, storage, inspection, or delay.
• Delays are probably the easiest to eliminate and lean
manufacturing demands that we do this.
• Reducing lot size would be an example of simplification.
• Elimination of operations is difficult and rare, but we must
always try. The question, “Why is this operation, transportation,
storage, inspection or delay necessary?” can lead to elimination.
• Combination of steps is best describe by the example of a
machine center.
• Combining of operation into a work cell is a big part of the lean
manufacturing concept.
• Changing the sequence of operations to create a smoother,
shorter product flow can be accomplished in two ways:
1. Change the sequence of operations to agree with the

layout.
2. Change the layout to agree with the sequence of
operations.
• The first choice is the cheapest, but moving machines around may
be cost justified.
• The last cost reduction formula question is “Can I simplify the
job?” which is considered to be almost always possible.
• With an operation, we can always move material and
equipment closer to the point of use, thereby reducing the
time required to reach to them and moving them back to the
point of use. If we move operations closer, we simplify the move.
• If we reduce the number of parts being stored or delayed, we are
simplifying.
• Another way of looking at simplifying is to downgrade the
complexity of a motion.
• Tools being used in macromethods study:

1. Flow Diagram
2. Operations Chart
3. Process Chart
FLOW DIAGRAM:
• It shows the path traveled by a part from receiving to stores to

fabrication to sub-assembly to final assembly to packout to
warehousing to shipping.
• Each path is drawn on a layout of the plant.
• Several parts can be shown on one flow diagram, but many pages
may be required depending on the product lines of the plant.
• Scaled plant layout is required to create a better flow diagram.
FLOW DIAGRAM: PRESENT SYSTEM
FLOW DIAGRAM: PROPOSED SYSTEM
OPERATIONS CHART:
• It has a circle for each operation required to fabricated each part,

to assemble each to the final assembly, and to pack out the
finished product. Every production step required, every job, and
every part is included.
• Operations charts show the introduction of raw materials at the
top of the chart, on a horizontal line. The number of parts will
determine the size and complexity of the operations chart.
• Below the raw material line, a vertical line will be drawn
connecting the circles (a step in the fabrication of that raw
material into finished parts).
• Once the fabrication steps of each part are plotted, the parts flow
together in assembly. Usually, the first part to start the assembly
is shown at the far right of the page. The second part is shown to
the left of that and etc., working from right to left.
OPERATIONS CHART
SEGMENT OF AN OPERATIONS CHART
SUB-ASSEMBLIES TO FINAL ASSEMBLY OF AN OPERATIONS CHART
PROCESS CHART:
• It is used to show all the handling, inspection, operations, storage

and delays that occur to one part as it moves from the receiving
department through the plant to the shipping department.
• Conventional symbols have been used to describe the process.
These symbols have been accepted by every professional
organization working with motion and time study. These symbols
are:
1. Operation – circle
2. Transportation – arrow (directed to the right)
3. Inspection – square
4. Delay – letter ‘D’
5. Storage – inverted triangle
PROCESS CHART: PRESENT SYSTEM
PROCESS CHART: PROPOSED SYSTEM
TECHNIQUES OF
MICROMOTION STUDY:
OPERATIONS ANALYSIS
MICROMOTION STUDY:
• In this study, we are interested in individual operations, and the

techniques that will help to understand the smallest detail of
operation so we can make small improvements.
• Jobs come in every conceivable form:
1. Individuals working alone with simple hand tools and
fixtures.
2. Individuals working at a machine (called
operator/machine).
3. Individuals working many machines (called multi-
machine cells), sometimes the same kind of machine,
sometimes different types of machines. One person operating
several different kinds of machines is an example of one
work cell.
4. Group of people working together (called gangs, cells, or
assembly and pack out).
• The most complicated work is just a larger series of simple
elements. First, break down the job into elements of work, then
analyze each element.
• One half of all human work is reaching for and moving items.
The other half of work is a small group of body motions like
grasping, walking and positioning.
• In micromotion study, we need to develop a workstation design
and a motion pattern to analyze and improve the motions and
thus determine how long they will take.
• There is no limit to cost reduction possibilities. With the right
tools, you can be a cost reduction champion.
• The techniques of micromotion study are:
1. Operations analysis chart
2. Operator/machine chart
3. Multi-machine chart
4. Gang chart
5. Left-hand/right-hand chart
• These techniques have several factors in common:
1. Each activity is broken into elements. An activity is one
unit of production. For example, if one operator were to
operate three pieces of machinery, there would be four
activities; one for the operator and the other three for
machines. Under the operator activity, we may have several
elements of work for each machine, while the machine
activity would have two elements - working or idle.
2. Time is measured linearly. A scale is drawn down the side
of an activity, and the unit of measurement is in minutes,
usually 0.01 of a minute. The elements are divided by a
horizontal line, indicating how much time is required.
3. All operations analysis techniques can use the same form.
Only the number of activities varies. In the foregoing four-
activity example, we would need two of the standard forms
side by side. The operations analysis chart would only use
only one half of one form.
4. All these charting techniques are visual and are good
sales tools. The length of the operation is shown by a scale
on the chart, and the present method can be held next to
the proposed method, with the choice being obvious.
OPERATIONS ANALYSIS CHART:

• This chart is used to describe a single activity, usually one
operator using only tools and equipment that are totally operator
controlled.
• This is the simplest of all the charts discussed in this chapter
because it has only one activity (the operator); however the
process is the same process used for the most difficult part.
OPERATIONS ANALYSIS CHART:
• The single activity is broken up into elements (an element of work

is one unit of work that cannot be divided realistically), and these
elements are timed.
Operation Analysis Chart
OPERATOR/MACHINE CHART:
• It is twice as complicated as the operations analysis chart since it

has two activities – the operator and the machine.
• It is much more useful because it shows the interrelationship of
the operator and the machine.
• Both the machine and the operator work intermittently, and this
chart shows what each is doing at every moment in time.
Operation/Machine Chart showing
Operation/Machine Chart w/ long idle time
reduced idle time
MULTI-MACHINE CHART:
• It is an operations analysis chart that has more than two

activities – the operator and several machines.
GANG CHART:
• It is a chart that considers the work of several workers of a gang.

Gang Chart
MOTION STUDY:
THE WORK STATION DESIGN
An organized workstation
MOTION STUDY: THE WORK STATION DESIGN
• Work station design, from the motion and time study perspective,
reflects the effort and time considerations in the development of
the design. It is a relevant activity of an Industrial Engineer.
• The workstation design is a drawing, normally top view, of the
work station, including equipment, materials and operator space.
• Neither motion study nor time study can be performed if no work
station design exist.
• In some cases, we may be required to select equipment and
physically determine the requirements of a work station. In those
cases, we are performing the manufacturing engineering job, and
other specialized training or experience is required.
• Work station design and optimum motion pattern and sequence
should come first before time standards can be set unless the IE
(or TMS technician) is designing for an impact study where
he/she needs to determine first the current standard (or present
system) to measure the productivity of his/her proposed system.
• Micromotion study (or maybe sometimes macromotion study)
requires workstation designs.
• During the development of work station design concept, a list of

principles of motion economy that all new practitioners
(industrial engineers) should learn and apply. When these
principles are applied properly to the design of workstations, the
most efficient motion pattern results.
• This chapter is divided into 3 sections:
a. Work station design
b. Principles of motion economy
c. Motion patterns
• The first question a new work station designer asks is, where to
start? The answer is – anywhere. No matter where you start in
work station design, another idea will come along and make the
starting point obsolete.
• Where to start depends a great deal on what is to be
accomplished at the work station.
• The cheapest way to get into production is the best rule for the
starting point. Any improvement on this cheapest method must
be justified by savings.
• The following information must be included in the design:

a. Work table
b. Incoming materials (such as bolt, clamp, washers, nuts,
packaging materials and quantity must be considered)
c. Outgoing material (finished product)
d. Operator space and access to equipment
e. Location of waste and rejects
f. Fixture and tools
g. Scale of drawing
PRINCIPLES OF MOTION ECONOMY:
• These are set of efficient motions applied as guidelines in

developing work station designs.
• The principles of motion economy should be considered for every
job but sometimes, these principles will be violated for good
reasons. These violations and reasons should be written down for
future use or reference.
Hand Motions
• The most expensive human fixture in the world is the human

hand.
• The hands should operate as mirror images.
• They should start and stop motions at the same time, they
should move opposite directions and both should be working at
all times.
• If the hands are reaching for two parts at the same time, the bins
should be placed at an equal distance from the work area and
the same distance from the center line of the work station.
• To design a normal work station, the technologist should place
all parts and tools between the normal and maximum reach, but
make the reaches as short as possible.
• To keep both hands working at all times is a challenge and can
be accomplished most easily by doing two parts at a time.
• Holding parts in one hand while assembling other parts to it is a
poor use of the holding hand.
Ballistic Motions
• These motions are created by putting one set of muscles in

motion and not trying to end those motions by using other
muscles.
• Throwing a part in a tub and hitting a panic button on a
machine are good examples. These motions should be
encouraged.
Controlled or Restricted Motions
• These motions are the opposite of ballistic motions and require

more control, especially at the end of the motion.
• Safety and quality considerations are the best justification for
these motions.
• If ways of substituting ballistic motions for controlled motions
can be found, cost reduction can result.
Continuous Motions
• These are curved motions and are more natural. When the body
has to change direction, speed is reduced, and two separate
motions result.
• If direction is changed less than 120 degrees, two motions are
required. Reaching into a box of parts lying flat on the table is an
example requiring two motions – one motion to the lip of the box
and another down into the box. If the box were placed on an
angle, one motion could be used.
Location of Parts and Tools
• Have a fixed place for everything and have everything as close to

the point of use as possible.
• Having a fixed place for all parts and tools aids in habit forming
and speeds up the learning process.
• A tool box can be used so the user knows where every tool is and
can retrieve it without looking. That should be our goal in every
workstation we design.
Location of Parts and Tools
• The farther the reach, the more costly it will be.
Release the Hands of as Much Work as Possible
• Since the hand is the most expensive fixture a designer can use,
we must provide other means of holding parts.
• Fixtures and jigs are designed to hold parts so operators can use
both hands. A hexagonal-shaped fixture can be used to hold hex
nut of same shape and size, thus holding for the object will be
eliminated.
• Foot-operated control devices can be designed to operate
equipment to relieve hands of work.
• Conveyors can move parts past operators, so operators don’t
have to get or put aside the base unit.
• Powered round tables are also used to move parts past an
operator.
• Fixture design is easy, and your knowledge of the part and
necessary processes are required to design fixtures.
Use Gravity
• Gravity is free power. Use it!

• Gravity can move parts closer. By putting an incline in the
bottom of parts hoppers, parts are moved closer to the point of
the hopper.
• Production management allows us to spare every expense, and
the use of gravity can do that.
• Gravity can also be used to remove finished parts from the work
station. Dropping parts into chutes that carry the parts back,
down, and away from the workstation can save time and
workstation space.
• Inclined roller conveyors use the concept of gravity.
MOTION PATTERNS:
• A motion pattern is the path taken by both hands in the process

of making one part or pair of parts (if making two at a time). The
path for each hand must be unbroken and a complete loop.
STOPWATCH TIME STUDY
Stopwatch
Tachometer
Video Recorder
STOPWATCH TIME STUDY:
• It is the most common technique for setting time standards in

the manufacturing and service sections which is acceptable both
in management and labor.
• It was developed by Frederick Taylor in 1880 and was the first
technique used to set engineered time standards.
• Negative attitudes towards stopwatch time study sometimes
make this a difficult job for industrial engineers, but time
standards considers reasonable sampling, adjustment to
compensate for normal pace and allowance for fatigue, avoidable
and unavoidable delays.
• This technique is being used in lean manufacturing to validate
waste reduction and impact of improvement that was done.
TOOLS OF STOPWATCH TIME STUDY:
• Because it play an important part, the tools of stopwatch study

are important to know before we get into the technique itself. The
tools are the following:
1. Stopwatches (continuous and snapback)
2. Computers – used in ease in computing time standards
3. Clipboards – used in taking down notes of the data
4. Videotape Recorder – it the best tool for studying and
recording the method and time standard since all details are
recorded and can be traced back for further analysis.
5. Tachometer – it is used for determining the speeds of
machines and conveyors.
6. Calculator
DETERMINATION OF
STANDARD TIME
PROCEDURE IN GETTING STANDARD TIME:
1. Get at least 30 cycles of task to be time studied (time elapsed

samples). The whole work cycle must be considered where the
end time is the start of the new cycle. Statistically, this number
of samples assume the population. (Note: There were task that
is tedious to take 30 samples due to very long cycle time of the
task, infrequency, etc.. Number of cycles to be time studied can
be reduced if this particular reason arise.
2. Arrange the data from smallest to highest, then cut the 5 lowest
and 5 highest data (these data refers to outlier data). With that,
the remaining data will be 20 samples. For time study below 30
samples, you may decide for the number of outlier data base on
its deviation on the clustered values of other datum.
3. Get the average time (AT) of the remaining data.
4. Compute for the normal time (NT):
NT = AT x PR
where: PR – performance rating, or the rating of actual task
performance compared to normal pace
PR > 100% if actual performance of task is faster than normal pace
PR = 100% if can be estimated as normal pace
PR < 100% if actual performance of task is slower than normal pace
PROCEDURE IN GETTING STANDARD TIME:
5. Compute for the standard time (ST).
ST = NT / (1 – AF)
where: AF – allowance factor, which compensates fatigue
allowance, avoidable delays and unavoidable delays.
Allowance factor commonly used is 15%.
ASSEMBLY LINE BALANCING
& WORKSTATION DESIGN
ASSEMBLY LINE BALANCING & WORKSTATION DESIGN:
• Production line (or product layout) arrange resources in sequence

so that the product can be made as efficiently as possible.
• This type of machine/manual process layout is used in repetitive
processing system that produce a large volume of one
standardized product.
• When designing production line (or product layout), our objective
is to decide on the sequence of tasks to be performed by each
workstation.
• To accomplish this, we need to consider the logical order of the
tasks to be performed by each workstation.
• We need to consider the speed of the production process, which
will tell us how much time there is at each workstation to
perform the assigned task.
• Line balancing is the process of assigning tasks to workstations
in a production line in order to achieve the desired output and
balance the workload among workstations.
• A production line can achieve its maximum efficiency if it is
balanced. Grouping of activities to workstation (workstation
design) is being done to achieve better line balance.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
Vicki’s Pizzeria is planning to make boxed take-out versions of its

famous pepperoni, sausage and mushroom pizza. The pizzas will be
made on a small assembly line. Vicki has identified the tasks that
need to be performed, the time required for each task, and each
tasks immediate predecessor. This information is shown here:
• Often it is helpful to have a visual representation of the

precedence relationship between the tasks that need to be
performed. This is called precedence diagram.
• This diagram is read from left to right. The circles (or nodes)
represent the tasks and the arrows (or arcs) show the
connections between them.
• Together, they show how the tasks are connected. To find a
task’s immediate predecessor, follow the arrows backward from
your task.
STEPS IN ASSEMBLY LINE BALANCING & WORKSTATION
DESIGN:
1. Identify tasks and their immediate predecessors:

• Immediate predecessor/s is the task or tasks that must be
performed first before another task can be done.
2. Determine output rate:
• Output rate is the number of units of product we wish to
produce over a period of time.
• Design of production line normally produces the desired
number of units with as few work centers as possible and
balance the workload at each workstation.
• For example, Vicky has decided that she wishes to produce
60 pizzas per hour in order to meet her growing demand.
Notice that the total task time to produce 1 pizza is 165
seconds. If in case Vicky wants to perform all nine work
elements herself, her maximum output in one hour would be:
Max output = (3,600 sec/hr)/(165 sec/unit) = 21.8 pizzas/hr

DESIGN:
3. Determine cycle time:

• Cycle time is the maximum amount of time each workstation
has to complete its assigned tasks. It is directly related to the
volume that can be produced.
• It can tell us how frequently a product is completed.
• Recall that in product layouts, work is being performed on
many workstations that are arranged in sequence.
• Output can be determined using this formula:
Output = (available time) / (cycle time)

where: Output is expressed in units produced per unit time.
• General cycle time equation: Cycle time can be computed

using this equation:
Cycle time = C = (available time) / (output)

where: Cycle time is normally expressed in seconds or
minutes per unit.
DESIGN:

• If we want to compute the cycle time for Vicky’s assembly line
and she wanted to produce 60 pizzas per hour as her desired
output, we start with the general equation for the assembly
line and with the equation as follows:
Cycle time (secs/unit) = ((60 mins/hr) x (60 secs/min))/

(60 units/hr)
= 60 seconds/unit
• Relationship between minimum cycle time (bottleneck) and

maximum output. What if Vicky changed her mind and
wanted to produce more than 60 pizzas per hour? This would
mean that her cycle time would have to be faster (its
numerical value would be lower), and pizzas would be
produced more frequently than every 60 seconds. Perhaps
she could lower the cycle time to 55 seconds or even 50
seconds. But what is the lowest possible value for cycle time.
DESIGN:

• Note that if Vicky lowered the cycle time below 50 seconds,
there would not be enough time to do task A, which requires
50 seconds. Therefore, given the current task times, 50
seconds is the lowest cycle time Vicky’s assembly line could
have.
• Task A is the longest task and thus acts as a constraint. This
is called the bottleneck. Bottleneck activity constraints the
production process and determines the lowest or minimum
cycle time.
• Sometimes it is possible to reduce the bottleneck by splitting
the task into smaller ones that can be done separately. For
example, maybe our bottleneck task which is rolling dough,
can be divided to smaller tasks, such as placing dough on a
floured board and rolling it out. Also, we can duplicate that
activity to reduce cycle time to two.
• However, there will always be a bottleneck. Once we eliminate
one bottleneck, the next longest task becomes the bottleneck.
DESIGN:

• Cycle time is related to the amount of output; therefore, this
minimum cycle time determines the maximum output that
can be achieved given current tasks. The relationship can be
derived as follows:
Maximum output = (available time) / (min C – bottleneck)
Using this equation, we can compute the maximum output

Vicki can have on her assembly line given that task A (the
bottleneck) takes 50 seconds:
Maximum output = (3,600 secs/hr) / (50 secs/unit)

= 72 units/hour or 72 pizzas/hr
• The maximum cycle time is equal to the sum of the task

times, or 165 seconds. As we saw earlier, this would result in
the production of 21.8≈22 pizzas per hour and would require
that all task be performed at a single workstation.
DESIGN:
4. Compute for Theoretical Minimum Number of Stations:

• The theoretical minimum number of stations is the
number of workstations that would be needed if the line was
100 percent efficient.
• Rarely do we achieve 100 percent efficiency, and often we will
have more stations than the theoretical minimum. However,
computing this number gives us a baseline for the number of
stations we should have.
• The formula are as follows:
TM = ∑t / C
where: ∑t = sum of the task times needed to complete
a unit
C = cycle time being considered
For Vicki’s assembly line, the theoretical minimum number

of stations (‘TM) for 60 pizzas per hour is:
TM = 165 seconds / 60 seconds = 2.75, or 3 stations

DESIGN:
5. Assign Tasks to Workstations (Balance the Line):

• Though there could be any variation in assigning tasks to
workstations, the following are the basic steps on this
process:
a. Start with the first station; make a list of eligible task to
be performed, following precedence relationships.
b. Select from the eligible task list by picking the task that
takes the longest time (longest task time rule). If only one
task is eligible, we do not need to use the rule.
c. When the cycle time has been used up at one station or
no task can be assigned to the remaining time, start a new
station.
Let see how these steps apply to Vicki’s Pizzeria. A convenient

method is to make a table with columns labeled Workstation,
Eligible Task, Task Selected, Task Time and Idle Time. We should
take note that the cycle time should be 60 seconds or less.
DESIGN:
6. Compute Efficiency, Idle Time, and Balance Delay:

• After tasks have been assigned to workstations, we should
compute the efficiency of the arrangement.
• Efficiency, which is expressed as percentage, is the ratio of
total productive time divided by total time used.
Efficiency (%) = (∑t / NC) x 100%

where: ∑t = sum of the task times
N = number of workstations
C = cycle time
• To improve efficiency, we try to assign as much work to the

lowest number of workstations needed to produce the volume
of product desired while keeping the workloads balanced.
• Often, it is helpful to compute the amount by which the
efficiency of the line falls short of 100%. This is called the
balance delay, it is computed as follows:
Balance delay (%) = 100% - efficiency

DESIGN:
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS:
Shape of the Line:

• The actual shape of a production line usually is not long, straight
line. It may not be best for productivity stand point.
• The productive shape of the line can be S-shaped, U-shaped, O-
shaped or L-shaped since it promotes better communication and
coordination among workers. U and O shaped workstations can
store frequently used resources in the center, where they are
accessible to everyone.
Paced versus Unpaced Lines:

• On paced lines the product being worked on is physically
attached to the line and automatically moved from one station to
the next when cycle time elapses.
• The amount of time workers have to perform their tasks is
identical to cycle time. Paced lines use conveyors.
DESIGN:
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS:
Paced versus Unpaced Lines:

• Unpaced lines, on the other hand, allow the product to be
physically removed from the line to be worked on.
• Workers can then vary the amount of time they spend working
on the product. Storage areas for inventory are often placed
between workstations, to be used when there is a delay in
production at a station.
Number of Product Models Produced:

• Another consideration is whether to have a single-model or a
mixed-model line.
• A single-model line is designed to produce only one version of the
product.
• In contrast, a mixed-model line is designed to produce many
versions. A mixed model is more flexible, but there may be more
complications with regard to scheduling and changing
production from one model to another.
INDIRECT LABOR &
MOTION & TIME STUDY
INDIRECT LABOR & MOTION & TIME STUDY:
• The number of people and the cost of indirect labor are

determined by using ratios of indirect labor categories to direct
labor based on the previous year’s actual head count.
• Indirect labor is controllable, and the use of motion and time
study techniques can make a big difference in the quality and
quantity on indirect labor. The techniques of motion and time
study used for direct labor can also be used for indirect labor.
• The example of indirect ratios in the table (on the next slide)
shows what type of work is considered indirect, and the ratios
indicate national industry averages. 21% of direct labor
(210/1,000) or 17.4% of the total people (210/1,210) are indirect.
• Many of these indirect laborers earn more than direct laborers,
so cost percentage can be higher.
• Take note that number of indirect laborers and category grouping
changes for every company and depending on the scale of the
business.
• Incentive systems create another concern for indirect labor
categories. When direct laborers are working 42% faster with the
same indirect crew size, do we add more people or do we put
indirect laborers on incentive also.
INDIRECT LABOR & MOTION & TIME STUDY:
DEVELOPING MEASURES FOR INDIRECT LABOR:
• The elements done in indirect labor are often done by a very few
individuals or are done only occasionally.
• The primary purpose for measure of indirect labor is the
planning and scheduling of work, since these types of labor
commonly is highly diversified.
• Conducting of process study is one of the major step in
measuring indirect labor. All indirect labor evaluations begin
with traditional methods analysis.
• Each process could be defined and documented with the process
chart and/or process flow chart. This is sufficient for defining
sequences, providing routine documents and training employees.
• Planned improvements are implemented and tested. Developing
time standards using work sampling commonly can be used.
CONCEPTS ON DIFFERENT INDIRECT LABORS:
1. MATERIAL HANDLING:
Motion study can improve material handling. These are
several points to consider:
a. Can we eliminate any moves?
b. Can we automate moves?
c. Can we combine operations to eliminate move between
operations?
d. Can we move more parts at a time?
e. Can we put the transporting empty element of industrial
trucks to good use?
f. Can we manufacture parts in line using gravity?
g. Can we move machines closer together?
h. Are we using the best material-handling device?
i. Can we manufacture the part next to the assembly line to
reduce the amount of transport?
j. Can we use moving storage?
2. QUALITY CONTROL:
Quality control varies greatly from one company to another
and the need for these types of employees varies
considerably. The highly labor intense operations of quality
control are the main subject of this section.
1. Line inspectors – these are inspectors usually assigned at
the end of the line to check the quality of produced
products.
2. Department/Section inspectors – these inspectors will
roam the area randomly to check material and operations,
with the purpose of developing proper operation. These
inspectors may be required to approve set-ups before the
operator starts production, and they may be required to
inspect a part every hour and make entries on control
charts.
2. MANUFACTURING, PLANT & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING:

Determining of time standards of activities and methods
improvement are the valuable contribution of these personnel. They
also develop solutions for productivity, quality, cost reduction, on-
time delivery, safety and morale of systems and employees.
3. MAINTENANCE & TOOLING:

It is composed primarily of the following categories:
1. Routine maintenance – it is the maintenance required on
specific intervals and needs to be scheduled. Oiling machinery,
changing bearings, bulbs and oil, and inspecting equipment is a
small list of routine maintenance chores that can be time-studied
and scheduled. It is also known as schedule or preventive
maintenance.
2. Ordinary maintenance (or planned maintenance) – it
includes modifying existing facilities, making major repairs, etc. It is
a kind of maintenance that can be planned for, scheduled and
completed in a modest amount of time.
3. Emergency maintenance – it is a type of maintenance that

needs to be done immediately to correct the problem happening to a
certain machine.
4. WAREHOUSING & SHIPPING TASKS:
Warehousing is the safekeeping and issuing of the company’s

finished product. Great work has been accomplished in
warehousing methods such as (1) strategic location for fast,
medium and slow moving items, (2) cross docking and (3) optimizing
unit load sizes.
5. RECEIVING & STORES DEPARTMENT TASKS:
Its responsibilities are to unload carriers, create a receiving report

and check in all materials as to quantity, quality (visual only), and
correctness of part numbers.
6. CLERICAL TASKS:
• Clerical employees may be required to keep records of activities,

inventory, equipment, cost, etc.
• These activities and transaction times can be determined, with
the objective to know if a person has enough work done or too
much.
• These positions are justified by saving the manager time for more
important duties.
PERFORMANCE
CONTROL SYSTEMS
PERFORMANCE CONTROL SYSTEMS:
• A performance control system is established in manufacturing

and service departments to set goal, monitor, control, sustain
and solve problems that might arise if there were deviations
occurring versus the set goal.
• It is sometimes very personal because it judges people, and for
this reason it receives more attention than any other use of time
standards.
• It has 5 functions, which is also the function of any control
system, which are:
1. Planning or goal setting
2. Comparison of actual versus goal
3. Tracking results
4. Variance reporting
5. Corrective action
PLANNING OR GOAL SETTING:
• In every control system, the goals must be set; most important,

these goals must be measurable and achievable.
• It uses several techniques which some are have already
discussed such as:
1. Stopwatch time study and standard time determination
2. Assembly line balancing and workstation design to
determine the target efficiency.
3. Setting of Conformance to Plan (CTP) and labor
productivity standards base on target efficiency (for
assembly line) and standard times.
• Without goals (or standards), we are without direction, and
achieving our potential is impossible.
COMPARISON OF ACTUAL TO GOAL:
• The second function of any control system is to compare the

actual results to the planned results.
• An operator or a worker will produce a number of units in a
period of time. This is compared to the number of units the
standard time asked for. The result is a percent performance
versus the planned (or target) result.
• Every job the operator does during a day is collected and
compared to create a daily performance report.
• The operators and line (or section) performances are collected to
create supervisor, department, shift and/or plant performances
for each day, week, month and year.
TRACKING RESULTS:
• Tracking could be called graphing. It is plotting results against a

horizontal time line. MS Excel is efficient to use for this purpose
and MS Powerpoint to present this report.
• In performance control systems, percent performance and
percent indirect are plotted weekly. The trend on percent
performance (productivity) should be going up, while at the same
time the indirect labor percentage must be held flat or be
diminishing.
• Trend is being monitored to check the performance and the
problem/s that are arising.
• Percent indirect is indirect hours divided by total hours.
VARIANCE REPORTING:
• When actual performance does not live up to goals (expectations),

a variance from standard exists.
• In a production control system, if a part is behind schedule by 4
hours, a variance report must be done. This could be as simple
as reasonable explanation of what had happened that lead to not
hitting the target or plan.
• Daily production reports normally have a ‘Remarks’ portion to jut
down the reason of under performance. These daily performance
reports should have a portion to write down any concerns that
happened during the given day. Any concerns such as safety
issues might possibly happen during a given day.
• Nearly every actual result will be different from the goal, which
could be higher or lower the set goal. The magnitude of these
variances is what is important.
• The larger the variance, the bigger the problem. Managers and
supervisors should attack the largest problems (variances) first
and fix these problems.
• Each variance can be assigned to a person or group of persons
for investigation and corrective action.
CORRECTIVE ACTION:
• Solving problems and implementing solutions are some of the

main reasons why performance control system exists.
• Corrective action makes it all happen. Problems in
manufacturing department is in wide-range which includes:
1. Machine maintenance problems
2. Material problems
3. Management problems such as lack of assignments, lack
of instruction
4. Poor time standards
5. Poor operator effort
END OF PRESENTATION
END OF PRESENTATION

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Methods Study

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Methods Study

Course Code: IEE2

Instructor: Engr. Cesar Amante Ting

• The term lean production environment was coined by James

• The lean environment requires an aggressive attack on waste,

1. Specifying value as action steps.

• Shigeo Shingo, a Japanese Industrial Engineer, conceptualize

• Push versus Pull Production System/Scheduling:

• Before Taylor, the workforce developed its own methods through

• Taylor is also responsible for the following innovations:

- Frank Gilbreth started his work life as a bricklayer’s

3. Henry Laurence Gantt (1861-1919) – he invented the task and

4. Ralph M. Barnes (1900-1984) – he was one of the first and best

6. Shigeo Shingo (1909-1990) – he received an honorary doctoral

7. Professor Elton Mayo – he was known as the father of human

WHAT IS A TIME STANDARD?

3. A Specific Task: It is a detailed description of what must be

• Statistically, the importance of time standards can be shown by

1. Determining the number of machine tools to buy.

5. Determining assembly line balance, determining the

1. How many machines do we need?

• The 0.161 min/unit is called the takt time (defined as the

No. of machines = Time standard / Takt time

• Not many people, departments, or plants work at 100%

• Therefore, depending on the anticipated performance, we will be

- Given the total of 138.94 hours to complete the task in making

• The marketing department has forecasted sales of 2,500 water

• Management will be judged by how well it performs to this goal.

• At the earliest point in a new product development project, the

3. How do we load and schedule machines, work centers,

• Even the simplest manufacturing plant must know when to start

• Inventory is a great cost in manufacturing; therefore, knowledge

5. How do we determine the assembly line and work cell

• The objective of assembly line balancing and balancing work cells

• Productivity is a measure of output divided by input. If we are

• We doubling the output we gain 100% increase in productivity.

• Using time standards for determining the target output, we are

8. How can we select the best method by evaluating cost

• The basic rule of production management is that all expenditures

• Motion study is divided into two major categories, macromotion

COST REDUCTION FORMULA:

• It is not a mathematical formula but a formula (or procedure) for

1. Can I eliminate this step?

• These four questions must be asked in this order because the

1. Change the sequence of operations to agree with the

• Tools being used in macromethods study:

• It shows the path traveled by a part from receiving to stores to

• It has a circle for each operation required to fabricated each part,

• It is used to show all the handling, inspection, operations, storage

• In this study, we are interested in individual operations, and the

OPERATIONS ANALYSIS CHART:

• The single activity is broken up into elements (an element of work

• It is twice as complicated as the operations analysis chart since it

• It is an operations analysis chart that has more than two

• It is a chart that considers the work of several workers of a gang.

• During the development of work station design concept, a list of

• The following information must be included in the design:

PRINCIPLES OF MOTION ECONOMY:

• These are set of efficient motions applied as guidelines in

• The most expensive human fixture in the world is the human

• These motions are created by putting one set of muscles in

Controlled or Restricted Motions

• These motions are the opposite of ballistic motions and require